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It is hard to believe that only ten years have gone by since Peroutka and Snyder's breakthrough in the 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT, serotonin) receptor field. There were good precedents with adrenoceptors and histamine receptors and it seemed sensible that multiple 5-HT receptors would also exist, but to find them one had to wait until the technology was right. But with a combination of receptor binding technology and classical pharmacology over the past decade everything fell into place. One of the most striking papers to emerge during the past year was that of Julius et al. who transfected 5-HT_lc receptors into rat fibroblasts where they are not normally present. They found they were dealing with a protooncogene, and when these altered fibroblasts were transplanted into the nude mouse they gave rise to tumour formation. Nagatsu and his colleagues in Japan have been able to transfer the tyrosine hydroxylase cDNA into non-neuronal cells, for future use in intracerebral grafting. This is but one example of many that will be found within this volume of how the curtain is beginning to lift on many areas of biological psychiatry and, most particularly, on the subtle role of 5-HT.

This chapter examines a subgenre of monophonic songs labeled motet enté (meaning “grafted motet”) in some medieval sources. These songs were conceived and crafted from the fusing of the single-voiced chanson and the multi-voiced motet. The term “motet” is itself multivalent, for medieval sources often refer to refrains as “motets.” Refrains conceptually multiply and blur voices; thus they encapsulate in a figurative way the literal, aural effects of polyphonic motets. Composers, with the horticultural technique of grafting in mind, worked the many guises and voices of the motet into single-stanza, free-verse songs that strongly resemble triplum or motetus parts, but which are emphatically monophonic. As a compositional practice, grafting has an analog in present-day “sampling” found in popular music; both grafting and sampling create musical hybrids that ask readers and listeners to access their knowledge of multiple musical and literary contexts. The medieval “monophonic motet,” as both a product of grafting and a graft onto the central chanson repertory, calls attention to the cross-genre, and in some cases cross-gender, dialogues contained within a single voice.

This chapter discusses methods for converting the many body problem in interacting polymer fluids to a statistical field theory. Auxiliary field transforms are introduced, that decouple interactions among polymer species and reduce the problem to that of individual polymers interacting with one or more fluctuating fields — the subject of Chapter 3. Examples of models for a variety of systems are enumerated, including polymer solutions, blends, block and graft copolymers, polyelectrolytes, liquid crystalline polymers, and polymer brushes.

This chapter reviews the pathophysiological status of the spinal cord after injury and establishes criteria for biological intervention. It details the pathological cascade that occurs during the acute phase of the injury in which damaged axons swell, excitatory neurotransmitters trigger excitotoxic injury, reactive oxygen species are generated, and inflammation develops, leading to further loss of neurons and glia. It describes the application of agents to impede this cascade and reduce the damage expressed in the finally established lesion. The chapter also reviews the effectiveness of pharmacological agents and neuronal grafts, and provides guidelines for what should be done for a patient with chronic post-traumatic spinal cord injury if neurobiological interventions are available.

This chapter discusses recent advances in the field of cell therapy for Parkinson’s disease and the utilization of functional imaging to monitor survival and growth of grafted human embryonic dopamine cells. Additionally, studies of long-term treatment outcome are reviewed, including the potential application of preoperative imaging for the selection of transplantation candidates. The chapter also provides valuable new data on imaging changes underlying complications of therapy such as graft-related dyskinesias. Additional data are provided on the use of novel PET tracers to assess the role of serotonergic terminals in grafted tissue as well as MRI methods to evaluate changes in neural circuitry following cell implantation.

Following its introduction by Cairns in 1968, trabeculectomy quickly became the procedure of choice for the management of elevated intraocular pressure (IOP) inadequately controlled by medications, and it remains the gold standard today. This procedure’s popularity stemmed from dissatisfaction with the existing practices of the time, which typically involved full-thickness sclerectomy. Although quite effective at IOP reduction, an unguarded sclerectomy invited severe and often prolonged hypotony, with the associated risks of a flat anterior chamber, maculopathy, and suprachoroidal hemorrhage, to name but a few. Placement of the sclerectomy beneath a partial thickness scleral flap added much needed control to filtering surgery. Indeed, proper construction and suturing of the scleral flap are vital to preventing scleral flap dehiscence and promoting further surgical success, as the scleral “valve” provides the majority of the resistance to initial aqueous outflow, limiting the risk of early hypotony. There is no consensus on the size or shape of scleral flap required to produce effective IOP control. Surgeon preference is generally what was taught during training, with square, rectangular, trapezoidal, and triangular flaps all commonly employed. Although scleral flap shape is probably unimportant, the flap should be at least one-half to two-thirds scleral thickness to avoid tearing or avulsing the tissue and to prevent “cheese wiring” by sutures. Most surgeons prefer to hinge the flap as far forward as possible to ensure that the sclerectomy is created anterior to the scleral spur, avoiding the ciliary body. Extending the sides of the flap too far beyond the limbus, however, may result in excessive filtration and early hypotony. Recently, some have advocated leaving the sides of the flap short, not extending fully to the limbus, in order to force aqueous posteriorly and create a more diffuse bleb. In this case a wider flap may assist with proper anterior placement of the sclerectomy. In many cases, complications involving the scleral flap can be avoided by attention to risk factors preoperatively and careful handling of tissue intraoperatively. The most important risk factor for scleral complications is previous ocular surgery performed at the intended trabeculectomy site, particularly extracapsular cataract extraction.

Transplantation into the central nervous system has the potential to develop into a very powerful therapeutic approach for a variety of neurological disorders. This chapter discusses the principles of transplantation, the brain as transplantation site, transplantation of neural cells, potential therapies with intracerebral grafts, transplantation of nonneural cells, human trials with neural tissue transplants, immunological risks of transplantation, the use of immunosuppression, transplantation of transfected cells, and direct injection of oligonucleotides, virus vectors, and other noncellular approaches for gene transfer.

Answer 4.1

This is a unilateral cleft lip and palate.

Clefting in humans occurs in approximately 1 in 700 live births, although this varies depending on race. In black races, there is a very low incidence, whereas in races from South East Asia,...

Among the components of bio-nanocomposites, the nanometer sized biofillers from biomass show unique advantages over traditional inorganic nanoparticles by virtue of their biodegradability and biocompatibility. Currently, biomass-based nanofillers include the rod-like whiskers of cellulose and chitin, the platelet-like nanocrystals of starch, the self-organized nanophase of supramolecular lignin complexes, and many artificial nanofillers derived from biomass. Biofillers that do not have a cellulose origin are defined as noncellulosic biofillers. Besides the inherent biodegradability and biocompatibility of biomass-based polymers, these nanometer sized noncellulosic biofillers have the following predominant advantages over inorganic nanoparticles: (1) Biofiller materials are abundant, renewable, and easily available; (2) Application of the biofiller can improve the bioeconomy; (3) The as-prepared biofillers are low density, and thus can not severely increase, and may even decrease, the specific gravity of nanocomposites; (4) Biofillers have high specific strength and modulus, i.e. high rigidity, that contribute a reinforcing function; (5) Biofillers have comparatively easy processability due to their nonabrasive nature, which allows high fill levels and hence a significant cost savings; (6) The relatively reactive surface of biofillers, covered with many hydroxyl groups, provides a great opportunity for chemical modification and grafting; (7) Recycling by combustion of noncellulosic biofiller-filled composites is easier in comparison with inorganic filler systems; (8) The self-organized arrangement of biofillers in nanocomposites may regulate electronic, optical, magnetic, and superconductive properties. As a result, the possibility of using noncellulosic biofillers in bio-nanocomposites has received considerable interest.

Gelatine is a well-known structural protein widely used in the daily life, as well as in the scientific and technological areas for the preparation of a great variety of composite materials. But in spite of its abundance and common use, gelatine presents itself as a complex biopolymer with a mixed character between a protein, since it is derived from collagen, and a synthetic linear polymer with random spatial arrangement above certain temperature. For numerous applications, mainly in biomedicine, the biocompatible and biodegradable properties of gelatine are crucial, and usually the reinforcement of biopolymer matrix by assembling to inorganic or hybrid nanoparticles is also required to improve its mechanical stability. Alternative treatments such as chemical crosslinking may also contribute to reduce water swelling and enhance the mechanical properties as well as thermal stability. The incorporation of inorganic solids into the proteinous matrix allows tailoring both the mechanical and functional properties of the resulting gelatine-based composites. Many strategies may be followed to tune the functional properties: selection of inorganic solids offering the desired functionalities, grafting of suitable functional groups to the gelatine hybrids, or combination of additional polymers or fillers in ternary composites. In this way, advanced functional materials of increasing complexity are developed from the basis of a very common biopolymer, opening the way for a wide range of applications of the gelatine-based nanocomposites.

Tube shunts can be placed in the anterior chamber, the ciliary sulcus, or the pars plana. However, if the eye is phakic, the choice is limited to the anterior chamber; ciliary sulcus placement is likely to result in cataract formation, and pars plana placement will likely complicate removal of the cataract that will likely develop. Most corneal complications of tube shunt surgery result from tubes that are too anterior. Loss of vision may result due to these complications. If the tube is inadvertently inserted too close to the cornea, a loss of endothelial cells will result in edema and require transplantation to restore vision. Reported rates of corneal complications range from 2% to 33% and consist mostly of corneal edema/decompensation and corneal graft failure. In a cohort of patients implanted with the Ahmed™ Glaucoma Valve (New World Medical, Inc., Rancho Cucamonga, California), postoperative corneal abrasions occurred in 5 of 60 (8%) eyes. Another study reported the rate of corneal drying/dellen later in the postoperative course (8 of 59 eyes; 13.6%). Contact between the tube and the cornea has been noted at a rate of up to 5%. As the rate of tube shunt implantation has increased, the incidence of corneal edema in patients with tube shunts has also increased. Some of these cases develop corneal opacification with decreased vision and may require corneal transplantation to clear the visual axis. One large study of patients with Ahmed tube shunts (159 eyes total) reported corneal graft failure resulting in repeat penetrating keratoplasty (PKP) in 11 of 31 (35%) eyes with corneal grafts. Improper anterior chamber tube entry may damage the cornea. If the entry angle is not parallel to the iris and aims anteriorly, the needle used to create the tunnel may tear or detach Descemet’s membrane. Entry through the cornea (rather than the sclera) may also predispose to epithelial downgrowth or tube extrusion. To avoid such a complication, fullthickness entry into the anterior chamber should be as far posterior as possible.

This chapter explores the attempts to compare the confidence man (con man) to corporate enterprise and political corruption. The con man remains a powerful cultural symbol, as he brought to the fore the seeming omnipresence of insincerity and deception in modern social life. Many Americans have tried to draw comparisons between confidence tricks, corporate enterprise, and urban politics. Moreover, most Americans also believe that stock market speculation, salesmanship, and municipal graft, are not that different from criminal swindle practices.

This chapter focuses on a period in Cuba's history in which graft and corruption prevailed: the period of the Batista dictatorship. According to Harry J. Anslinger, the director of the U.S. Federal Bureau of Narcotics, while serving as Cuba's dictator between 1952 and 1958, Fulgencio Batista failed to cooperate with U.S. antidrug efforts. The reality, with respect to drug trafficking, however, was more shaded. Evidence indicates that in certain key cases, Batista's government collaborated in apprehending foreign criminals and in approving requests for their deportation, and that, in other cases, the laxness of the Cuban judiciary allowed drug traffickers to escape punishment. Batista's detractors accused him of corruption and of governing dictatorially, but they never charged that he was linked to drug trafficking. Even Fidel Castro did not include such an allegation in the manifesto he issued prior to his July 1953 assault on the Moncada Barracks in Santiago.

The story of how The Globe (1599) was rebuilt from the reused oak timbers of The Theatre (1576) is well known. Less familiar is the environmental crisis that prompted this thrifty recycling. Shakespeare’s company, the Chamberlain’s Men, were in danger of losing The Theatre because the lease had expired. The landlord, Giles Allen, was threatening to pull down the playhouse and put its wood and timber to other uses. The leaseholders, Richard and Cuthbert Burbage, got there before him because a clause in the original agreement made them owners of the building on Allen’s land. In the lead-up to their stealthy dismantling of The Theatre on the icy morning of 28 December 1598, when Allen was away celebrating Christmas in the country, each side had been eyeing the valuable timber and wood. Its reuse was the lynchpin of a deal between the Burbages and five actor-sharers of the Chamberlain’s Men, including Shakespeare, for building The Globe: the brothers offered to supply the main materials if the sharers contributed to the lesser expenses of construction and maintenance. The Burbages had spent their savings on building an indoor theatre at Blackfriars two years before. Although it had begun to pay them rent, they could not afford to buy new materials because the price of wood and timber had risen 96 per cent over the quarter century since The Theatre had been built. This inflation was the result of southern English woodlands being deforested. Ancient English woodland and forests had been shrinking throughout the middle ages. By Henry VIII’s time the pace began to accelerate. Worried about timber supplies for shipbuilding, the government took the first steps—largely ineffective—to manage depletions. Climactic and demographic pressures aggravated overexploitation, and by the 1590s caused a fuel crisis in south-east England and the country’s first major environmental controversy. Similar to the threat of warming global temperatures today, the stresses on southern English woodland—at that time the country’s most essential but finite natural resource—reached an ecological turning point. A solution was in the offing, but it was a highly ambivalent one.

The disputed land-uses and cultivation practices represented in As You Like It responded to unprecedented changes in Elizabethan climate, population, and economic relations. Traditional modes of rural dwelling were no longer protected by virtue of their rural isolation or autonomy, but were becoming inescapably tied to national and global orders of competitive growth and resource exploitation. Perhaps the most disruptive of these modernizing turns was the development of gunpowder technologies and the armament industry. As in other western European countries, military culture became ubiquitous in England by the late sixteenth century as a result of innovations in gunpowder weapons and the formation of national armies. During the Middle Ages, low-tech weaponry and feudal mobilization had limited the social and environmental impacts of war. This situation began to change from the fifteenth century onwards with the development of far more deadly cannons, mines, and firearms. Influenced partly by the Erasmian ethics of his Humanist education (like Queen Elizabeth and King James in their attitudes to war), Shakespeare drew attention to gunpowder’s devastating effects on human and non-human animals and their environments in virtually all his history plays and several of his tragedies, even thoughmost of these references were anachronistic. By layering historical and contemporary viewpoints he registered changing material realities and cultural assumptions about the ecology of war: from self-regulating cycles of martial destruction and agrarian regeneration, to incremental technological mastery reliant on ever-increasing resource consumption. Traditional ideas about redeeming war through cultivation are captured by the Virgilian image of beating swords into ploughshares. It suggests that peacetime cultivation will heal wartime damage, and that periods of war and peace routinely alternate. The swordsinto-ploughshares trope also encodes temporal assumptions that the arc of catastrophe, in its political, ecological, and dramatic senses, is limited in scope and ultimately reversible. In this chapter I want to examine the emerging gunpowder regime putting pressure on this paradigm, and replacing it with modern structures of recoiling environmental risk and planetary push-back, represented in Henry IV Part Two and Macbeth respectively.

Cymbeline makes a theatrical virtue of continually echoing dialogue and scenarios from Shakespeare’s previous plays. Earlier critics were doubtful about this recycling, wondering whether Shakespeare was not falling back on re-runs to make up for failing inventiveness towards the end of his career. These opinions tended to overlook his return to writers such as Boccaccio and Holinshed for fresh material, as well as his projection of personal conflict into new geographic contexts, in the manner of All’s Well That Ends Well and his other late romances. Modern stage productions have capitalized on these signs of imaginative vigour, however, by embracing Cymbeline’s retrospective recreation as cheeky, knowing humour, particularly in the final scene of over-packed revelations and entwining narratives. Cymbeline’s multiple storylines create a polygeneric experience characteristic of Shakespeare’s plays in general and his romances in particular. Steve Mentz has observed that Cymbeline and other ‘polyglot’ romances are well suited to staging modern narratives about the natural world’s tendencies to interdependence, adaptation, and biodiversity. Every main character in Cymbeline has his or her own environmental attachments (e.g. Innogen and Britain, Giacomo and Italy, Lucius and the Roman empire, Cymbeline and ‘Lud’s Town’, Belarius, Arviragus, Guiderius and Wales, Posthumus and Milford Haven). Each of these place-identities represents a different physical and cultural worldview, so when they shift and/or interweave, they suggest dynamic networks operating at multiple levels of planetary space and time. These webbed relations raise modern questions of environmental ethics and practice. Which plane of ecological relations suggests the best way of dwelling responsibly in the world? Which life-challenge might analogize a resolve to reduce excessive consumption and reverse human harm? (e.g. cultivating the local allotment garden? travelling to fewer conferences? preserving boreal forests?). Following trends in postmodern and postcolonial studies, ecotheorists observe that environmentalism has tended to privilege local attachments and modes of dwelling as the common ground for resistance to degrading forces of economic globalization. Pioneering ecocritic Jonathan Bate, for example, celebrated regional and village-focused writers such as William Wordsworth and John Clare.

Pacification was a term used to describe activities other than counterinsurgency within a combined set of Government of South Vietnam and U.S. aid programs. CORDS (with military support) delivered the programs. The chapter relates how aid projects were formalized, negotiated, funded, resourced, and executed, in a business culture where graft and corruption were a part of the way of life for the Vietnamese. A view was that about 80 percent of money and resources allocated to a particular project could be expected to be lost on account of handouts, theft, and pilfering. At the national level the aspirations of the people of South Vietnam had been articulated as a new life, leading CORDS to introduce the term “New Life Development” into their organizational structure, a vision that was the ideal, but one that unfortunately fell short in practice.