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Research on counteractive control explores the processes that individuals employ to increase the motivational strength of their high-order goals and decrease the motivational strength of their low-order temptations. In this chapter, we first describe the basic assumption of counteractive control theory: that self-control is an instrumental response to motivational conflicts. People only exercise self-control when a significant conflict is expected between high- and low-order motives. We then describe how self-control operations bolster the motivational strength of goal pursuit via one path and asymmetrically undermine the motivational strength of temptation pursuit via a second path. Next, we discuss the specific self-control strategies, including those that modify the choice situation, shift attainment expectations, and change the psychological representation of choice alternatives. We further distinguish between explicit self-control operations that rely on conscious processing, and implicit operations that do not require explicit consideration. We end with a broader discussion of the conditions under which goals and temptations appear to be in conflict or not.

The core idea of a behavioural inhibition system including the septo-hippocampal system is presented here. This is linked to a strong ethological and pharmacological distinction between fear and anxiety; and to a primary role (illustrated with a schematic model) for the hippocampus in the resolution of goal conflict by increasing aversion and so producing behavioural inhibition.

Drawing on the rich social science literature on organizational effectiveness, this chapter puts forth the theoretical and methodological foundations of the WTO Dispute Settlement System (DSS) goal-based effectiveness framework. After discussing the main approaches developed in the social sciences to defining organizational effectiveness, the chapter explains the reasons for selecting the goal-based approach to serve as the basis for the study into the effectiveness of the WTO DSS. The chapter then reviews the central concepts associated with this approach and their application to the world of WTO adjudication, while focusing on organizational goals, goal multiplicity, goal conflict, and goal shifting. Finally, the chapter discusses several methodological determinations that should be made before applying the proposed WTO DSS goal-based effectiveness framework. These include the selection of the goal setters to inform the DSS’s effectiveness analysis, the choice of performance indicators, and the determination of the time frame in which effectiveness is to be measured.

This chapter describes how state leaders encounter five difficulties while crafting strategies for governing. The first is conflict between the goals identified in Chapter 5. A familiar conflict of goals is that between internal order and human rights. Another conflict among goals arises between external security and internal order. Moreover, the desire to promote economic growth may collide with several other goals, such as national security, internal order, and human rights. A second challenge in crafting governance strategies is uncertainty about the techniques to use to achieve goals. Even when leaders are clear about their priorities, they may be unsure about the most effective ways to pursue them. A third challenge in crafting governance strategies is managing cultural and institutional inheritances, while the fourth challenge derives from turbulence in the governing environment. Some aspects of the environment may remain relatively constant, but other aspects change quickly. This can throw a leader's calculations into disarray. The final challenge is analytic complexity—that is, the difficulty of absorbing knowledge and making judgments about large and complicated questions.

The present chapter concludes the work. It sums up the key findings of the study while discussing the results emerging from a comparative analysis of the three categories of disputes examined throughout the book. The chapter then revisits the central arguments put forth in the book and articulates the lessons to be learned for the study of the goals, operation, and effectiveness of the World Trade Organization (WTO) Dispute Settlement System (DSS), and of international courts more broadly. It also discusses some of the insights to be offered with respect to possible institutional changes or reforms of the WTO DSS, with a view to ensuring the system’s future effectiveness. The chapter closes with several observations that go beyond effectiveness, pertaining to the costs and unintended consequences attendant on more effective and empowered international adjudication.

This chapter focuses on two vexing aspects of coping with daily activities while experiencing pain—the tendency to avoid actions that are perceived as exacerbating the pain (avoidance), and the tendency to endure pain by persistent engagement in ongoing activities (endurance). Based on theoretical approaches such as the fear-avoidance and the avoidance-endurance models of pain, the chapter provides insights into the wide variety of cognitive, emotional, and behavioral pain responses that are related to an avoidant or endurance pain response style and aspects of dysfunctionality. Several specific response patterns are identified that mirror dysfunctional avoidance or endurance in addition to an adaptive pattern. The chapter provides preliminary evidence from both clinical and experimental research and is based on selected models of goal striving as conceptualized within a broad self-regulation perspective.