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The United States and the GATT/WTO System

Gautam Sen

in US Hegemony and International Organizations: The United States and Multilateral Institutions

An examination is made of the relationship between the US and the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), and its successor, the World Trade Organization, addressing the crucial question of ... More

An examination is made of the relationship between the US and the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), and its successor, the World Trade Organization, addressing the crucial question of the likelihood that the US will exit, or through its behaviour undermine, the multilateral trade organization in favour of regional or bilateral alternatives. It is concluded that the probability of a US‐inspired weakening of the WTO is low, although the incentives for protectionism in the US are strong and growing as a result of globalization and the changing international division of labour. The US domestic political system gives voice to such protectionist interests in international trade policy through a set of administrative and legal remedies that are reinforced by principles such as reciprocity and ‘fair trade’. Countervailing factors to this situation include the growing power of US export interests, the effectiveness of the Executive in deflecting the protectionist tendencies in the US Congress, and the exceptional power and influence of the US over the multilateral regime, in which it is a rule maker rather than a rule taker, enjoying the power to bend the rules selectively to serve its interests. As such, the WTO tends to reflect and reinforce US economic interests, and the US is, therefore, likely to continue in overall terms its efforts to comply with and generally strengthen the multilateral organization, rather than to break away from it.Less

Integrating GCM with Global Strategy and Organization

George S. Yip and Audrey J. M. Bink

in Managing Global Customers: An Integrated Approach

Chapter 2 examined how a supplier should decide whether to adopt a global customer management (GCM) programme. This chapter discusses how to evaluate the GCM drivers in both the customer's and the ... More

Chapter 2 examined how a supplier should decide whether to adopt a global customer management (GCM) programme. This chapter discusses how to evaluate the GCM drivers in both the customer's and the supplier's industry, and how to integrate the GCM programme into the supplier's overall global strategy and global organization.Less

Structuring the Global Customer Management Programme

George S. Yip and Audrey J. M. Bink

in Managing Global Customers: An Integrated Approach

Chapter 3 discussed how the global customer management (GCM) programme should fit into the company's overall global strategy and global organization. This chapter moves on to the GCM programme ... More

Chapter 3 discussed how the global customer management (GCM) programme should fit into the company's overall global strategy and global organization. This chapter moves on to the GCM programme itself. The organization of the programme forms the bedrock of the total GCM effort. But there is, of course, no single best way of organizing GCM, as the right structure depends on the company and its situation. The one commonality is that a global account management (GAM) programme nearly always sits at the core of the GCM organization. The GAM programme constitutes the formal part of GCM, usually with a specific organization and reporting structure for the main players in GCM. As such the GAM programme will be the most visible part of the GCM organization, but needs to be integrated with the rest of the company. The chapter describes the various elements that make up a GCM organization, and discusses the three major forms of GAM organization, along with their benefits and possible pitfalls.Less

The United States and the International Financial Institutions: Power and Influence Within the World Bank and the IMF

Ngaire Woods

in US Hegemony and International Organizations: The United States and Multilateral Institutions

Examines the role of the US in international financial institutions with particular reference to the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund (IMF). Describes the extraordinary influence of the ... More

Examines the role of the US in international financial institutions with particular reference to the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund (IMF). Describes the extraordinary influence of the US on these institutions as a function of both formal means (e.g., US financial contributions) and informal practices and conventions that have developed over time, with the informal mechanisms of influence often being more important than the formal ones. However, it is also argued that, notwithstanding the weight of US influence, it would be inaccurate to consider the World Bank and the IMF as mere instruments of US power and policy, and that their remaining credibility and legitimacy rest in part on their ability to create some political distance between themselves and their most powerful state patron. US domestic political conditions are also important. Within the country, the division of authority between Executive and Congress sometimes enhances and at other times constrains US influence; the effective exercise of US power also requires interlocutors in host governments who share the technical mind‐set and ideological predispositions of the US and international financial institutions. The different sections of the chapter: analyse the formal and informal structures of power in the World Bank and IMF; look at the US in relation to the financing, lending decisions, staffing and management of these institutions; and discuss formal power structures and informal exercises of influence.Less

US–UN Relations in the UN Security Council in the Post‐Cold War Era

David M. Malone

in US Hegemony and International Organizations: The United States and Multilateral Institutions

An examination is made of the evolution of US behaviour in the United Nations Security Council since the 1990s; this behaviour shows an inconsistency born out of a general suspicion of the ... More

An examination is made of the evolution of US behaviour in the United Nations Security Council since the 1990s; this behaviour shows an inconsistency born out of a general suspicion of the organization, particularly of its General Assembly, and the author demonstrates that US historical experience of the UN largely explains that suspicion. First provides some evidence of this US inconsistency of behaviour, with reference both to conflict resolution and humanitarian issues. Then goes on to explain the primary influences on this behaviour, arguing that US ambivalence towards the UN has been more affected by struggles over a New International Economic Order in the 1970s and US perceptions of unbalanced UN approaches to the Arab–Israeli dispute than by the end of the cold war. Having made special reference to America's chequered historical experience of the UN, the chapter examines the ways in which negative perceptions of the UN have played out in US domestic politics, particularly since the late 1990s. Finally, America's experience of the UN's expanded post‐cold‐war security agenda is reviewed, noting that the inherent tensions between the promotion of values and the promotion of interests, and the difficulties of relating means to ends, have come sharply to the fore during this period.Less

Amnesty International

Aryeh Neier

in The International Human Rights Movement: A History

This chapter analyzes Amnesty International, the best known and by far the largest human rights organization in the world, which was established in London in 1961. Its creation was a major milestone ... More

This chapter analyzes Amnesty International, the best known and by far the largest human rights organization in the world, which was established in London in 1961. Its creation was a major milestone in the emergence of an enduring human rights movement. From the start it was intended to be a global organization. That is, those who would participate in its efforts would come from all over the world, and those on whose behalf it campaigned would be persons everywhere who suffered abuses of human rights. Today, Amnesty International is probably somewhat less influential, both in the United States and globally, than it was at its high point in the 1970s and the 1980s. Some would argue that this reflects the extension or dilution of its mandate to cover the full range of human rights issues, including economic and social rights.Less

Frustrated Globalism, Compromise Geographies: Designing the United Nations

Neil Smith

in American Empire: Roosevelt's Geographer and the Prelude to Globalization

This chapter discusses the designing and founding of the United Nations. The main problem that U.S. postwar planners faced was how to design a global organization that followed democratic principles ... More

This chapter discusses the designing and founding of the United Nations. The main problem that U.S. postwar planners faced was how to design a global organization that followed democratic principles and recognized certain universal rights. The discussion looks at the postgeographic ambition of Theodore Roosevelt's new world order and the way the UN was intended to place international diplomacy beyond national differences and geography. It studies regionalism and globalism, and shows that the State Department lacked serious knowledge on Soviet thinking. Other topics covered in the chapter are the Dumbarton Oaks Conference, the “regionalism crisis”, and the activities of the UN until it became an instrument of U.S. foreign policy during the 1990s.Less

International Consortium for Social Development (ICSD)

Frank B. Raymond and Charles “Chuck” Cowger

in Handbook of International Social Work: Human Rights, Development, and the Global Profession

The International Consortium for Social Development (ICSD) is a global organization of individuals and institutions committed to the advancement of social development throughout the world. The ... More

The International Consortium for Social Development (ICSD) is a global organization of individuals and institutions committed to the advancement of social development throughout the world. The organization, started in the 1970s, consists of numerous types of organizations and individuals from many disciplines. Membership now includes educators, practitioners, students, schools of social work, nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), and other organizations concerned with social development. Furthermore, the ICSD has expanded to include worldwide representation with regional branches. This chapter presents an overview of the philosophy and mission of the ICSD, its history, organizational structure, major activities, and future directions.Less

Introduction: The Organization of Global Rulemaking

in World Rule: Accountability, Legitimacy, and the Design of Global Governance

This introductory chapter is divided into three sections. First, it sketches contemporary global governance and makes a case for its significance. Second, the case is made for examining global ... More

This introductory chapter is divided into three sections. First, it sketches contemporary global governance and makes a case for its significance. Second, the case is made for examining global governance from an organizational perspective. Third, the logic of global governance is explored as a foundation for discussion of the architecture of global governance organizations. An overview of the subsequent chapters is also presented.Less

Global Organizations in a Changing World

Rabi S. Bhagat

in Global Organizations: Challenges, Opportunities, and the Future

During the past four decades, there has been a significant growth of organizations that function across borders and cultures. These organizations are not necessarily Western or European in origin. ... More

During the past four decades, there has been a significant growth of organizations that function across borders and cultures. These organizations are not necessarily Western or European in origin. The functioning and evolution of global organizations are topics of considerable importance. This chapter discusses the role of increasing interdependence among nations as a context for the functioning of global organizations. The chapter presents the rationale for going global and discusses the framework for understanding the differences among countries and institutions that present opportunities and barriers. Global organizations function in an increasingly complex and dynamic environment, as is clearly evidenced by Brexit. The concept of tariff-free transactions resulting in economic blocs guided most of the economic activities of these global organizations in the twentieth century. Recent events cast doubt as to their viability and effectiveness. The chapter discusses these issues and presents the various challenges that globalization creates for these organizations.Less

Structure and Administration of GGOs

in World Rule: Accountability, Legitimacy, and the Design of Global Governance

This chapter explores the structural alternatives for global governance organizations (GGOs). It analyzes the six dimensions in GGO structure. Combining a well-defined legislative (representational) ... More

This chapter explores the structural alternatives for global governance organizations (GGOs). It analyzes the six dimensions in GGO structure. Combining a well-defined legislative (representational) body and an executive (bureaucratic) function within the overall organization, most global GGOs resemble self-contained narrow-purpose governments offering two areas of variation. The two general GGO structure types—traditional and hybrid—are differentiated by clustered variation on three dimensions: representational structure, apportionment, and bureaucratic function. The bases of these structural types are laid out in the first section of the chapter. The second section presents and analyzes the distribution of characteristics. The concluding third section offers implications of the observed patterns.Less

Interest Groups and Global Governance

in World Rule: Accountability, Legitimacy, and the Design of Global Governance

Interest groups—sometimes referred to as pressure groups or lobbying groups—play a significant role in global governance. In every substantive arena, the rules and regulations generated by global ... More

Interest groups—sometimes referred to as pressure groups or lobbying groups—play a significant role in global governance. In every substantive arena, the rules and regulations generated by global governance organizations (GGOs) have profound consequences for multiple constituencies. The effectiveness of the formal organizations representing their interests, and the factors that determine whether such organizations exist at all, shape the outcomes of all GGO decision-making processes. This chapter first describes three core areas of variation: interest group mobilization, alignment, and participation in the policymaking process. Second, patterns are revealed based on empirical research. The relationships between GGO core characteristics and the interest group dynamics around each GGO are explored. Third, the global concertation model is introduced to capture the observed dynamics of interest group participation and differentiate it from pluralism and corporatism. The association between interest group participation and other facets of GGO design are also considered.Less

Cooperation and Competition in Global Governance

in World Rule: Accountability, Legitimacy, and the Design of Global Governance

This chapter examines the complex relationship among global governance organizations (GGOs) with an emphasis on the distinctive dynamics of simultaneous coordination and competition. The first ... More

This chapter examines the complex relationship among global governance organizations (GGOs) with an emphasis on the distinctive dynamics of simultaneous coordination and competition. The first section offers an overview of the varieties of regulatory competition in the global governance context. The second section discusses cooperation among GGOs. The third section explains strategic behavior in the GGO environment. This preliminary analysis of the dynamics of competition and cooperation in global governance suggests that the substantive matter of rules and the nature of the rulemaking organization are the prime drivers of observed variation. When two established (typically governmental) GGOs confront novel issues that transcend established jurisdictions, there is a high probability of “co-opetition,” cooperation even as competition for primacy continues.Less

Conclusion: Models of Global Governance and Accountability

in World Rule: Accountability, Legitimacy, and the Design of Global Governance

This book has argued that the demands of accountability, particularly responsibility and responsiveness, are sometimes incompatible. The empirical observations demonstrate that global governance ... More

This book has argued that the demands of accountability, particularly responsibility and responsiveness, are sometimes incompatible. The empirical observations demonstrate that global governance organizations (GGOs) attempt to manage this tension across four areas of organizational design—structure, rulemaking, adherence, and interest group participation. But unmet expectations are still inevitable, manifested as charges of unaccountable and undemocratic governance. This observation begs the question: do GGOs favor one notion of accountability over another? Is there a coherent explanation for the accountability tendencies of GGOs? The first section of the chapter reviews the “types” defined in the four areas of organizational design and then identifies three GGO models: classical GGOs, cartel GGOs, and symbiotic GGOs. The second section examines the distribution of GGOs across these three types. The final section considers the implications of this study. The findings and observations presented herein complement many existing studies of international organizations, particularly constructivist accounts, and offer an explanation for the structure and processes of GGOs that looks beyond the power of nation-states.Less

Global Justice Organizing

Helene Slessarev-Jamir

in Prophetic Activism: Progressive Religious Justice Movements in Contemporary America

This chapter looks at a range of global justice organizations, including those that are engaged in advocacy work on debt relief, hunger and global poverty. Beginning with the Jubilee 2000 campaign, ... More

This chapter looks at a range of global justice organizations, including those that are engaged in advocacy work on debt relief, hunger and global poverty. Beginning with the Jubilee 2000 campaign, much of this work has been focused on Africa. Its deepening poverty has directly contributed to growing violence throughout many parts of the continent. As a result, global justice has become closely aligned with efforts to reverse Africa's growing humanitarian crisis through massive infusions of public and private funding into the poorest regions of the continent. The chapter also features several anti-genocide organizations that have formed in response to the ongoing conflict in various parts of Africa. These organizations use innovative organizing strategies that attract large numbers of young adults to work on their issues.Less

Introduction to the GGO Sample and GGO Core Characteristics

in World Rule: Accountability, Legitimacy, and the Design of Global Governance

This chapter first establishes the definition of a “global governance organization” (GGO), explaining the selection of entities included in this study, and, in the process, offering an approach to ... More

This chapter first establishes the definition of a “global governance organization” (GGO), explaining the selection of entities included in this study, and, in the process, offering an approach to sorting the universe of organizations that explains the focus on rulemaking entities. The second section describes the sample of twenty-five GGOs examined. Finally, the third section of this chpater introduces five core characteristics of global governance organizations, each hypothesized as a predictor of GGO structure and process. These five core characteristics—sector, rule type, membership, funding, and technicality—serve as reference points in the search for patterns among the GGOs examined.Less

Rulemaking in Global Governance Organizations

in World Rule: Accountability, Legitimacy, and the Design of Global Governance

This chapter first establishes the key differences among rulemaking processes. Four dimensions of global rulemaking regimes are described and considered in the analysis—formality, decision calculus, ... More

This chapter first establishes the key differences among rulemaking processes. Four dimensions of global rulemaking regimes are described and considered in the analysis—formality, decision calculus, decision rule, and permeability. The second section reports observed patterns of variation for the set of twenty-five global governance organizations (GGOs) under study. Based on cluster analysis of the distribution of rulemaking practices, two approaches to GGO rulemaking are identified: forum rulemaking and club rulemaking. The concluding third section considers the implications of the observed patterns with emphasis on the relationship between rulemaking and organizational structure, rule adoption, and the legitimacy-authority dilemma.Less