Bernard Gert, Charles M. Culver, and K. Danner Clouser
- Published in print:
- 2006
- Published Online:
- September 2006
- ISBN:
- 9780195159066
- eISBN:
- 9780199786466
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/0195159063.003.0008
- Subject:
- Philosophy, Moral Philosophy
This chapter shows the importance of recognizing the probabilistic nature of medical diagnosis and treatment. It discusses the possibly serious effects of physicians not understanding Bayes theorem, ...
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This chapter shows the importance of recognizing the probabilistic nature of medical diagnosis and treatment. It discusses the possibly serious effects of physicians not understanding Bayes theorem, and hence, not appreciating the importance of knowing the prevalence of a disorder in the population to be treated or screened. It shows the importance of doctors knowing about volume-outcome studies, geographical variation studies, and practice guidelines.Less
This chapter shows the importance of recognizing the probabilistic nature of medical diagnosis and treatment. It discusses the possibly serious effects of physicians not understanding Bayes theorem, and hence, not appreciating the importance of knowing the prevalence of a disorder in the population to be treated or screened. It shows the importance of doctors knowing about volume-outcome studies, geographical variation studies, and practice guidelines.
Steven Gunn, David Grummitt, and Hans Cools
- Published in print:
- 2007
- Published Online:
- January 2008
- ISBN:
- 9780199207503
- eISBN:
- 9780191708848
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199207503.003.008
- Subject:
- History, European Early Modern History
This chapter concludes the discussion of towns by drawing out the similarities and differences between the impact of war on towns in England and the Netherlands, stressing the geographical and ...
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This chapter concludes the discussion of towns by drawing out the similarities and differences between the impact of war on towns in England and the Netherlands, stressing the geographical and political variations within each polity. Towns in the Netherlands were more independent than their English equivalents, yet in some respects, war brought them more directly under princely tutelage. The processes that developed the prince's ability to deploy urban resources for war, however, might also consolidate urban communities and the power of their magistrates over them, and might result in a concentration of power in provincial states, where urban leaders might combine to direct military policy in the interests of their towns.Less
This chapter concludes the discussion of towns by drawing out the similarities and differences between the impact of war on towns in England and the Netherlands, stressing the geographical and political variations within each polity. Towns in the Netherlands were more independent than their English equivalents, yet in some respects, war brought them more directly under princely tutelage. The processes that developed the prince's ability to deploy urban resources for war, however, might also consolidate urban communities and the power of their magistrates over them, and might result in a concentration of power in provincial states, where urban leaders might combine to direct military policy in the interests of their towns.
R. Peto, J. Chen, T. C. Campbell, J. Li, J. Boreham, Z. Feng, and L. Youngman
- Published in print:
- 1996
- Published Online:
- September 2009
- ISBN:
- 9780192622358
- eISBN:
- 9780191723636
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780192622358.003.0030
- Subject:
- Public Health and Epidemiology, Public Health, Epidemiology
This chapter describes a geographical correlation study involving age-standardized mortality rates from almost 100 separate causes or groups of causes in sixty-five rural counties in China, plus a ...
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This chapter describes a geographical correlation study involving age-standardized mortality rates from almost 100 separate causes or groups of causes in sixty-five rural counties in China, plus a representative survey of almost 300 characteristics of the populations in each of these counties. The study may be used either directly or indirectly for medical research. This study's direct value is as a source of correlations between diseases, between diseases and factors that might affect those diseases, or between one factor or another. Its indirect value is as a source of statistical information that can be used to develop an overall description of some recent large developments in preventive medicine in China.Less
This chapter describes a geographical correlation study involving age-standardized mortality rates from almost 100 separate causes or groups of causes in sixty-five rural counties in China, plus a representative survey of almost 300 characteristics of the populations in each of these counties. The study may be used either directly or indirectly for medical research. This study's direct value is as a source of correlations between diseases, between diseases and factors that might affect those diseases, or between one factor or another. Its indirect value is as a source of statistical information that can be used to develop an overall description of some recent large developments in preventive medicine in China.
Paul Elliott, Jon Wakefield, Nicola Best, and David Briggs (eds)
- Published in print:
- 2001
- Published Online:
- September 2009
- ISBN:
- 9780198515326
- eISBN:
- 9780191723667
- Item type:
- book
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198515326.001.0001
- Subject:
- Public Health and Epidemiology, Public Health, Epidemiology
This book explores the field of geographical variations in disease. Especially with respect to variations in environmental exposures at the small-area scale, the book gives an account of current ...
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This book explores the field of geographical variations in disease. Especially with respect to variations in environmental exposures at the small-area scale, the book gives an account of current practice and developments. The recent and rapid expansion of the field looks set to continue in line with growing public, governmental, and media concern about environmental and health issues, and the scientific need to understand and explain the effects of environmental pollutants on health. The book is concerned with fostering an understanding of the geographical distribution of disease and the effects of environmental exposures on human health.Less
This book explores the field of geographical variations in disease. Especially with respect to variations in environmental exposures at the small-area scale, the book gives an account of current practice and developments. The recent and rapid expansion of the field looks set to continue in line with growing public, governmental, and media concern about environmental and health issues, and the scientific need to understand and explain the effects of environmental pollutants on health. The book is concerned with fostering an understanding of the geographical distribution of disease and the effects of environmental exposures on human health.
Robert Woods
- Published in print:
- 2009
- Published Online:
- September 2009
- ISBN:
- 9780199542758
- eISBN:
- 9780191715358
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199542758.003.0004
- Subject:
- History, Social History
This chapter is concerned with international and regional variations in late-fetal mortality. It considers four groups of countries. Members of the first group (Sweden, Norway, Denmark, and the ...
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This chapter is concerned with international and regional variations in late-fetal mortality. It considers four groups of countries. Members of the first group (Sweden, Norway, Denmark, and the Netherlands) have histories of stillbirth registration dating back to the early years of the 19th century, or the 1750s in the case of Sweden. For this group, it is possible to demonstrate the effects of variations in registration practice (how stillbirths were defined); the impact of improvements in the training, regulation, and effectiveness of midwives; and, from the late 1930s, the influence of successive advances in drug and medical technology (antibiotics, blood transfusion, incubators, ultrasound). The second group includes the USA and Britain. Here stillbirths only began to be registered in the 20th century so that a long-term perspective requires the estimation of mortality rates. Estimates of the stillbirth rate for England are derived using neonatal mortality as the base. The third group of countries is illustrated by France, Italy, and Spain. Here Catholic tradition encouraged the baptism in utero of unborn fetuses, especially if they were in great danger. A number of high mortality African countries will be used as examples for group four. The World Health Organization has recently derived new estimates of late-fetal and intrapartum mortality which show that in some West African countries more than 5% of fetuses that have reached twenty-eight weeks gestation will be born dead. This fourth group offers a sharp and reasonably well-documented perspective on historical patterns.Less
This chapter is concerned with international and regional variations in late-fetal mortality. It considers four groups of countries. Members of the first group (Sweden, Norway, Denmark, and the Netherlands) have histories of stillbirth registration dating back to the early years of the 19th century, or the 1750s in the case of Sweden. For this group, it is possible to demonstrate the effects of variations in registration practice (how stillbirths were defined); the impact of improvements in the training, regulation, and effectiveness of midwives; and, from the late 1930s, the influence of successive advances in drug and medical technology (antibiotics, blood transfusion, incubators, ultrasound). The second group includes the USA and Britain. Here stillbirths only began to be registered in the 20th century so that a long-term perspective requires the estimation of mortality rates. Estimates of the stillbirth rate for England are derived using neonatal mortality as the base. The third group of countries is illustrated by France, Italy, and Spain. Here Catholic tradition encouraged the baptism in utero of unborn fetuses, especially if they were in great danger. A number of high mortality African countries will be used as examples for group four. The World Health Organization has recently derived new estimates of late-fetal and intrapartum mortality which show that in some West African countries more than 5% of fetuses that have reached twenty-eight weeks gestation will be born dead. This fourth group offers a sharp and reasonably well-documented perspective on historical patterns.
Martin Gorsky, John Mohan, and Tim Willis
- Published in print:
- 2006
- Published Online:
- July 2012
- ISBN:
- 9780719065781
- eISBN:
- 9781781701423
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Manchester University Press
- DOI:
- 10.7228/manchester/9780719065781.003.0004
- Subject:
- Political Science, UK Politics
This chapter considers geographical variations in the membership of hospital contributory schemes in Great Britain and the associated issue of variations in the resources generated by the schemes. It ...
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This chapter considers geographical variations in the membership of hospital contributory schemes in Great Britain and the associated issue of variations in the resources generated by the schemes. It offers a geographical disaggregation of membership and finance, as well as a discussion of one of the key problems facing the schemes, namely the extent of cooperation and the demarcation of territory. The analysis reveals that the growth of the contributory schemes was uneven and the resources they generated varied substantially. This chapter suggests that the schemes therefore never attained comprehensive coverage, and a key factor in this was the question of attachments to individual hospitals. It also explains that the schemes played their part in regionalisation initiatives, and reciprocal arrangements were developed to facilitate the availability of services, but the process was not without dissension.Less
This chapter considers geographical variations in the membership of hospital contributory schemes in Great Britain and the associated issue of variations in the resources generated by the schemes. It offers a geographical disaggregation of membership and finance, as well as a discussion of one of the key problems facing the schemes, namely the extent of cooperation and the demarcation of territory. The analysis reveals that the growth of the contributory schemes was uneven and the resources they generated varied substantially. This chapter suggests that the schemes therefore never attained comprehensive coverage, and a key factor in this was the question of attachments to individual hospitals. It also explains that the schemes played their part in regionalisation initiatives, and reciprocal arrangements were developed to facilitate the availability of services, but the process was not without dissension.
Nick Bosanquet and Chris Salisbury
- Published in print:
- 1999
- Published Online:
- November 2011
- ISBN:
- 9780192629913
- eISBN:
- 9780191730153
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780192629913.003.0006
- Subject:
- Palliative Care, Patient Care and End-of-Life Decision Making, Palliative Medicine Research
This chapter discusses the pattern of services usage for palliative care, with emphasis on the changing historical trends, geographical variations, and accessibility of such care for patients. In it, ...
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This chapter discusses the pattern of services usage for palliative care, with emphasis on the changing historical trends, geographical variations, and accessibility of such care for patients. In it, the patterns of use of palliative care services in the the United Kingdom, the United States, Europe, Australia, Canada, New Zealand, and the developing countries are examined and discussed. Emphasis is placed upon the accessibility of palliative care to patients and the future challenges and developments faced by the palliative care structure and practices of these countries.Less
This chapter discusses the pattern of services usage for palliative care, with emphasis on the changing historical trends, geographical variations, and accessibility of such care for patients. In it, the patterns of use of palliative care services in the the United Kingdom, the United States, Europe, Australia, Canada, New Zealand, and the developing countries are examined and discussed. Emphasis is placed upon the accessibility of palliative care to patients and the future challenges and developments faced by the palliative care structure and practices of these countries.
Sean R. Connolly
- Published in print:
- 2009
- Published Online:
- February 2013
- ISBN:
- 9780226904115
- eISBN:
- 9780226904146
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- University of Chicago Press
- DOI:
- 10.7208/chicago/9780226904146.003.0011
- Subject:
- Biology, Ecology
The practice of attributing geographical variation in species richness to coincident variation in environmental conditions has a long history. In the marine realm, species richness gradients have ...
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The practice of attributing geographical variation in species richness to coincident variation in environmental conditions has a long history. In the marine realm, species richness gradients have been attributed to some of the same variables that have been invoked on land, such as average temperatures, seasonal climatic variability, habitat availability, and productivity. Explanations for particular patterns in the marine realm (e.g., longitudinal gradients in the Indo-Pacific) have also invoked mechanisms specific to those contexts, such as ocean currents, and vicariance events due to Plio-Pleistocene sea-level fluctuations.Less
The practice of attributing geographical variation in species richness to coincident variation in environmental conditions has a long history. In the marine realm, species richness gradients have been attributed to some of the same variables that have been invoked on land, such as average temperatures, seasonal climatic variability, habitat availability, and productivity. Explanations for particular patterns in the marine realm (e.g., longitudinal gradients in the Indo-Pacific) have also invoked mechanisms specific to those contexts, such as ocean currents, and vicariance events due to Plio-Pleistocene sea-level fluctuations.
Oded Galor
- Published in print:
- 2017
- Published Online:
- May 2018
- ISBN:
- 9780262036627
- eISBN:
- 9780262341660
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- The MIT Press
- DOI:
- 10.7551/mitpress/9780262036627.003.0002
- Subject:
- Economics and Finance, Economic History
This chapter explains how the growing evidence for the relevance of preindustrial policies naturally questions the endogenous emergence of the institutions and the environmental conditions that ...
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This chapter explains how the growing evidence for the relevance of preindustrial policies naturally questions the endogenous emergence of the institutions and the environmental conditions that favored their implementation. The literature recently moved to exploring the determinants of the economic and demographic transitions, and hence of comparative developmental patterns, in the very long run. Examples of these newly explored factors are the persistent effects of historical events, such as the spread of humans across the globe and the differential timing of the Neolithic transition in different regions of the world. Another aspect in this context is geographical variation in agricultural suitability, which shaped the incentives for long-term investment, delayed consumption, and might have generated variability in the long-term orientation across societies.Less
This chapter explains how the growing evidence for the relevance of preindustrial policies naturally questions the endogenous emergence of the institutions and the environmental conditions that favored their implementation. The literature recently moved to exploring the determinants of the economic and demographic transitions, and hence of comparative developmental patterns, in the very long run. Examples of these newly explored factors are the persistent effects of historical events, such as the spread of humans across the globe and the differential timing of the Neolithic transition in different regions of the world. Another aspect in this context is geographical variation in agricultural suitability, which shaped the incentives for long-term investment, delayed consumption, and might have generated variability in the long-term orientation across societies.
Claire Meul
- Published in print:
- 2013
- Published Online:
- January 2014
- ISBN:
- 9780199678860
- eISBN:
- 9780191758089
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199678860.003.0005
- Subject:
- Linguistics, Historical Linguistics, Syntax and Morphology
The chapter traces the formal and functional evolution of the verbal derivational formative id(i) - from Latin to Central Dolomitic Ladin, i.e. a subgroup of ...
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The chapter traces the formal and functional evolution of the verbal derivational formative id(i) - from Latin to Central Dolomitic Ladin, i.e. a subgroup of Rhaeto-Romance. In Dolomitic Ladin - id(i) - developed as an inflectionally bound segment: its intra-paradigmatic occurrence is restricted to the singular and to the third person plural of the present tense of a subset of first conjugation verbs, e.g. Ladin prs.ind. 3. ćiacol-ëi-a ‘he chats’ vs. prs.ind. 4. ćiacolun ‘we chat’. This conforms to the so-called ‘N-pattern’ (cf. Maiden 2003). On the basis of a statistical analysis of fieldwork data, we identify a series of intra-linguistic parameters, viz. etymology and morpho-prosodic structure of the verb root, and sociolinguistic variables, viz. age, dialect competence, and dialect-geographical provenience of the informants, that (co-)determine whether a particular Ladin first conjugation verb is susceptible or not of displaying this ‘infixed’ conjugation pattern. Interestingly, our results also reveal that first conjugation infixation can be exploited at a functional level that extends beyond the morphological domain.Less
The chapter traces the formal and functional evolution of the verbal derivational formative id(i) - from Latin to Central Dolomitic Ladin, i.e. a subgroup of Rhaeto-Romance. In Dolomitic Ladin - id(i) - developed as an inflectionally bound segment: its intra-paradigmatic occurrence is restricted to the singular and to the third person plural of the present tense of a subset of first conjugation verbs, e.g. Ladin prs.ind. 3. ćiacol-ëi-a ‘he chats’ vs. prs.ind. 4. ćiacolun ‘we chat’. This conforms to the so-called ‘N-pattern’ (cf. Maiden 2003). On the basis of a statistical analysis of fieldwork data, we identify a series of intra-linguistic parameters, viz. etymology and morpho-prosodic structure of the verb root, and sociolinguistic variables, viz. age, dialect competence, and dialect-geographical provenience of the informants, that (co-)determine whether a particular Ladin first conjugation verb is susceptible or not of displaying this ‘infixed’ conjugation pattern. Interestingly, our results also reveal that first conjugation infixation can be exploited at a functional level that extends beyond the morphological domain.
John D. Brewer, Bill Lockhart, and Paula Rodgers
- Published in print:
- 1997
- Published Online:
- March 2012
- ISBN:
- 9780198265702
- eISBN:
- 9780191682940
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198265702.003.0002
- Subject:
- Law, Criminal Law and Criminology
This chapter compares recorded indictable crime in the Republic of Ireland and Northern Ireland between 1945 and 1995. The fact that both parts of Ireland experienced increases in crime at around the ...
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This chapter compares recorded indictable crime in the Republic of Ireland and Northern Ireland between 1945 and 1995. The fact that both parts of Ireland experienced increases in crime at around the same time and that their respective crime profiles are remarkably similar leads one to posit that similar criminogenic processes are at work in both jurisdictions. The later 1950s and early 1960s marked a significant turning point in economic policy in the Republic with attention being paid to economic growth and a move away from isolationist and protectionist policies. This was associated with an easing of social controls, which were largely embedded in the moral power of the parish priest, and led to changes in everyday life and increasing secularization. The economic changes led to greater consumerism, more goods available for theft and a reduction in emigration, which created a larger pool of young male potential offenders.Less
This chapter compares recorded indictable crime in the Republic of Ireland and Northern Ireland between 1945 and 1995. The fact that both parts of Ireland experienced increases in crime at around the same time and that their respective crime profiles are remarkably similar leads one to posit that similar criminogenic processes are at work in both jurisdictions. The later 1950s and early 1960s marked a significant turning point in economic policy in the Republic with attention being paid to economic growth and a move away from isolationist and protectionist policies. This was associated with an easing of social controls, which were largely embedded in the moral power of the parish priest, and led to changes in everyday life and increasing secularization. The economic changes led to greater consumerism, more goods available for theft and a reduction in emigration, which created a larger pool of young male potential offenders.
Lee Yeounsuk
- Published in print:
- 2009
- Published Online:
- November 2016
- ISBN:
- 9780824833053
- eISBN:
- 9780824870553
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- University of Hawai'i Press
- DOI:
- 10.21313/hawaii/9780824833053.003.0002
- Subject:
- Society and Culture, Asian Studies
This chapter discusses the efforts to create an image of a language that was spoken by an anonymous “nation-people,” an indefinite “somebody” who could be anyone from the upper or lower class of ...
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This chapter discusses the efforts to create an image of a language that was spoken by an anonymous “nation-people,” an indefinite “somebody” who could be anyone from the upper or lower class of samurai, merchants, or peasants. For that purpose, it was necessary to represent a pure linguistic model not contaminated by geographical and social variations. The reality was, however, that such odorless, transparent language could not be found anywhere—yet the logic of linguistic representation itself formulates criteria for these variants to measure the degree of their variation. Such manipulation was the prerequisite and core of the idea of kokugo, and the newly created linguistic form to carry out this idea in Meiji was the genbun itchi.Less
This chapter discusses the efforts to create an image of a language that was spoken by an anonymous “nation-people,” an indefinite “somebody” who could be anyone from the upper or lower class of samurai, merchants, or peasants. For that purpose, it was necessary to represent a pure linguistic model not contaminated by geographical and social variations. The reality was, however, that such odorless, transparent language could not be found anywhere—yet the logic of linguistic representation itself formulates criteria for these variants to measure the degree of their variation. Such manipulation was the prerequisite and core of the idea of kokugo, and the newly created linguistic form to carry out this idea in Meiji was the genbun itchi.
