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This chapter examines the arguments that claim that human antisocial behavior—notably impulsivity, aggression, and related forms of criminal conduct—have neurobiological roots. While neurobiological evidence from genomics or functional brain imaging is likely to have limited traction in the criminal courtroom itself, a new diagram is nonetheless emerging in the criminal justice system as it encounters developments in the neurosciences. This does not entail a challenge to doctrines of free will or an exculpatory argument that “my brain made me do it,” as some have suggested. Rather it is developing around the themes of susceptibility, prediction, and precaution that have come to infuse many aspects of criminal justice systems as they have come to focus on questions of risk—risk assessment, risk management, and risk reduction.

This chapter discusses current challenges and future perspectives of the field. Topics covered include theoretical issues in phylogeny reconstruction, computational issues in analysis of large and heterogeneous data sets, genome rearrangement data, and comparative genomics.

Comparisons between completely sequenced metazoan genomes have generally emphasized how similar their encoded protein content is, even when the comparison is between phyla. Given the manifest differences between phyla and, in particular, intuitive notions that some animals are more complex than others, this creates something of a paradox. Simplistic explanations have included arguments such as increased numbers of genes; greater numbers of protein products produced through alternative splicing; increased numbers of regulatory non-coding RNAs and increased complexity of the cis-regulatory code. An obvious value of complete genome sequences lies in their ability to provide us with inventories of such components. This chapter examines progress being made in linking genome content to the pattern of animal evolution, and argues that the gap between genome and phenotypic complexity can only be understood through the totality of interacting components.

This concluding chapter identifies some of the emerging concepts and technologies that will drive future advances in polar limnology. These include the increased awareness of climate and related impacts in the polar regions, and the importance of high latitude lakes and rivers as sentinels of global change; the increased availability of wireless network technology to obtain high temporal resolution data sets from these remote sites; the emergence of new sensor technologies and underwater platforms, including robotic systems that may be used in the future to explore subglacial lakes and other polar waters; and the development of surface imagery approaches ranging from local-scale observations by unmanned aerial vehicles to circumpolar-scale measurements by satellite, for example by synthetic aperture radar. The chapter also examines the new opportunities provided by environmental genomics, including application towards bioprospecting for novel extremophiles and biomolecules of pharmaceutical and industrial interest.

This chapter demonstrates a reader-friendly discussion about the shift in orientation by molecular biologists away from genes per se, into the wider fields of genomics and epigenetics—that is, to the contextualization of genes. Emphasis is given by many of these researchers to the dynamic interaction of DNA with both micro-environments internal to the body and macro-environments external to the body, and their interrelationship. This approach takes into account individual developmental and life course experiences that may bring about long-lasting modification to or even permanent changes in gene function. These emerging epigenetic models embrace complexity and acknowledge irresolvable uncertainty. The effects of historical, political, and social environments on individual biology and lived experience are also recognized, but thus far only spottily researched.

This chapter begins with a discussion of the Rationale for a Second Edition of Human Genome Epidemiology. It then discusses public health applications of genome-wide association studies, the emergence of public health genomics, and phases of translation research in genomics. An overview of the subsequent chapters is presented.

This chapter considers the origins and emergence of public health genomics as a subdiscipline of public health, moving on to a consideration of current practice with some specific examples. It then looks at the future prospects for the field and its role within medicine and health care in the 21st century and beyond. Public health genomics is built around the prevention of morbidity and mortality and the promotion of health, and seeks these benefits at the population level in addition to that of individual patients. This is a paradigm that should not only unite genomics and epidemiology, medicine, and public health, but which should also underpin all health services and biomedical research in the modern world.

The Evaluation of Genomic Applications in Practice and Prevention (EGAPP) Initiative, established by the Office of Public Health Genomics at the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, supports the development and implementation of a rigorous, evidence-based process for evaluating genetic tests, and other genomic applications for clinical and public health practice in the United States. An independent, nonfederal EGAPP Working Group (EWG), a multidisciplinary expert panel, selects topics, oversees the systematic review of evidence, and makes recommendations based on that evidence. This chapter describes the EGAPP processes, and details the specific methods and approaches used by the EWG.

With the advent of molecular genetics, the accelerated mapping of human genes to specific chromosome locations was made possible without the use of detailed pedigrees. Moreover, following the sequencing of the human genome, new techniques now allow for the scanning of entire genomes in search of genes or gene markers associated with a given trait, regardless of the pattern of inheritance. Among these major advances, however, it is not likely that an instrument as useful as family history will be rendered obsolete as a genomic tool. This chapter argues not only that the use of family history will continue to be valid in clinical settings, but also that family history is poised to become a tool of widespread use in public health settings. Since the emphasis will be on the latter argument, the clinical aspects of family history are briefly addressed.

In the context of structural genomics projects, there are two main routes to consider for solving efficiently and rapidly the three-dimensional (3D) structure of the target gene products by crystallography. The first is the Multiple-wavelength Anomalous Diffraction (MAD) technique, which necessitates growing SeMet-substituted protein crystals. The second is molecular replacement (MR), which requires X-ray data for the native protein as well as the structure of a related homolog. This chapter describes some of the newest developments in MR to get the best possible set of phases to initialize refinement and reconstruction in the best possible conditions.

From a relatively small beginning, nearly two decades ago, phase calculation using multiple-wavelength anomalous diffraction (MAD) data has become more widespread and generally used. This chapter discusses the most recent developments and experimental details. Topics covered include the theoretical background of MAD phasing and some of the choices that need to be made in the design and implementation of MAD experiments.

This chapter casts the high-throughput automation efforts being developed to meet the needs of Structural Genomics initiatives in the framework of an optimization problem. It gives a general overview on optimization techniques with a bias specifically towards the problem of crystallographic refinement. This picture is extended as the chapter considers model building, program flow control, decision-making, validation, and automation. Finer details of different approaches are provided in a conclusive review of some popular software packages and pipelines.

This concluding chapter draws together the main themes of the book before summarizing the legacy of the pioneer guppy researchers. It identifies some areas where research is likely to be directed in future. These include the application of genomic tools and analyses of multi-trait evolution. There are three main conclusions. First, quality empirical work (such as behavioural observation and ecological recording) is of lasting value. The Trinidadian guppy system illustrates well how durable good data are. Second, investigations involving the guppy have led to significant advances in evolutionary ecology. It is a uniquely tractable vertebrate system. Lab studies can be dovetailed with field observations and manipulations. In addition, the guppy illustrates beautifully how changes in one trait, for example predator avoidance, impinge on others such as mating behaviour. Finally, the guppy system will continue to offer unrivalled opportunities to test theories in evolutionary ecology. The book concludes with a plea that the system be safeguarded.

This chapter addresses the widespread assumption that capitalism's future can best be understood as made up of more, and better, technology. The scale of scientific and technological activity today is wholly unprecedented, and guarantees a flood of new knowledge and things. A succession of “longwave theories” have tried to make sense of the long cycles of economic change, and now hint at a new kind of economy emerging from low carbon technologies, broadband, genomics, and nanotechnology. But technologies have always been as much shaped by societies as shaping them, and people should expect struggles to shape technology and science—struggles that will often pit big governments and big business against the public.