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This chapter examines how neuropsychological theories posited by Luria continue to evolve in the modern era. In particular, it looks at how Luria’s functional systems theory has been expanded upon and elaborated through such theories as the gradiental theory of cognitive cortical organization and cognitive novelty/familiarity theory of hemispheric specialization. The chapter also examines the differences between clinical neuropsychology of today and during Luria’s times. More specifically, it examines how the thrust of clinical neuropsychology has shifted from neuroanatomical diagnosis to fine cognitive analysis of diverse neurological and neuropsychiatric disorders, cognitive rehabilitation, monitoring the efficacy of cognotropic medications, and design of cognitive activation paradigms in functional neuroimaging studies. In sum, this chapter shows that Luria’s monumental contributions to neuropsychology and cognitive neuroscience continue to be relevant and to have a lastingeffect on the development of the field.

This chapter discusses how different functional neuroimaging methods can be employed to study the functional organization and neural bases of cognitive functions such as language. It also looks at the practical and conceptual limitations of these methods, and uses the term ‘functional neuroimaging’ as a generic term to cover all of the methods that are currently available for the non-invasive measurement of brain activity in human subjects. The term does not refer solely to those methods that are based on haemodynamic variables.

This chapter aims to do justice to some of the magnificent historical accounts on the structural and functional organization of the parahippocampal region (PHR) which contributed to our current understanding of this region. It also aims to provide a point of reference for subsequent chapters, since in various chapters slightly different nomenclatures are used. Most, if not all of these nomenclatures may reflect slight variances in the functional perspectives of the respective authors of the chapters. The approach taken here is to describe different views on nomenclature, interlaced with some of the historical accounts on the PHR. The major task, though, is to provide a comprehensive definition of the PHR, giving credit to the different views and perspectives that are currently fashionable in the field.

This chapter explores the institutions and institutional changes needed to meet human rights demands, focusing on international executive power. It first discusses the functions of the domestic executive, and how the power of that executive is both facilitated and controlled by the governmental structure within which the executive operates. The chapter then turns to the differences between the international executive and the domestic executive, and to the appropriate methods to facilitate and control the international executive. Next, it considers the implications of this analysis in the context of functional organization, of the United Nations, of the international financial institutions (IFIs), and of the G-7/G-8. The chapter concludes with integrated recommendations.

The behavioural data reviewed in the chapters came mainly from the effects of brain lesions. The chapters were written before the invention of positron emission tomography (PET) or functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) for imaging the human brain at work. Researchers now know much more about the functional organization of the human brain from imaging studies, and it is time for a reappraisal. This chapter is an attempt toward this end.

This chapter explains the influence of sex hormones on hemispheric asymmetry and interhemispheric integration. It shows that sex hormones are important modulators of performance asymmetries and that this reveals an intraindividual variation in addition to interindividual variation. The chapter argues that sex hormones have powerful neuromodulatory properties which dynamically change the functional brain organization and cognitive behavior, not only during prenatal development but throughout life. It suggests that a stable hormonal environment with low sex-hormone levels promotes a stable interhemispheric integration, and also reveals that hormone therapy improves intrahemispheric performance at a processing stage critical for the manifestation of across-field advantage. The chapter establishes the potential origin and the true extent of sex differences in functional brain organization and cognitive abilities.

In complex systems theory, two meanings of a complex adaptive system (CAS) need to be distinguished. The first, CAS1, refers to a complex system that is adaptive as a system; the second, CAS2, refers to a complex system of agents which follow adaptive strategies. Examples of CAS1 include the brain, the immune system, and social insect colonies. Examples of CAS2 include multispecies ecosystems and the biosphere. This chapter uses multilevel selection theory to clarify the relationships between CAS1 and CAS2. The general rule is that for a complex system to qualify as CAS1, selection must occur at the level of the complex system (e.g., individual-level selection for brains and the immune system, colony-level selection for social insect colonies). Selection below the level of the system tends to undermine system-level functional organization. This general rule applies to human social systems as well as biological systems and has profound consequences for economics and public policy.

This chapter begins by presenting the basic principles of cortical plasticity. It highlights the improved auditory abilities in the blind. It also addresses the ‘what’ and ‘where’ in auditory cortex. In addition, the musical learning and auditory imagery, and the sensitive periods of auditory cortical plasticity are described. The connection between brain activation and musical perception is becoming clearer as more and more refined techniques become available to image neural activity. Brain imaging can be performed, while subjects are listening to music or imagining it. Cortical plasticity has to be considered in at least two ways in the context of studies on music and the brain.

This chapter focuses on the confusion regarding the use of key concepts from thermodynamics and information theory in various disciplines, particularly in relation to theories of biological evolution. It explains the distinction between order and the informed functional organization that characterizes living systems and outlines what is considered to be the appropriate paradigm for theorizing about the role of energy and information in biological processes. This chapter also discusses thermodynamics with particular reference to its application to living systems and the concepts of control volume frame of reference and available energy.