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There are currently two types of ‘dualism’ in patterns of resource use within developing countries that are relevant to the problem of resource degradation and poverty. The first ‘dualism’ concerns aggregate resource use and dependency within the global economy. The second ‘dualism’ concerns aggregate resource use and dependency within a developing economy. This ‘dualism within dualism’ pattern is symptomatic of a process of resource-based development, accompanied by substantial resource conversion, which often leads to benefits that are inequitably distributed. To reverse this ‘vicious cycle’, specific policies must be aimed at overcoming the structural features of ‘dualism within dualism’ in resource use patterns. Second, policies must also be introduced that improve the overall success of resource-based development that is accompanied by frontier land expansion. Specific policies include reform of land, tax, credit, and other economic policies that generally reinforce the dominance of wealthier households in natural resource and land markets, and promote the speculative investment in these resources as tax shelters.

Over the long sweep of history it is difficult to argue that the lands around the Black Sea have been more volatile, a sense of ethnic identity more deeply felt, or questions of land, custom, and religion more divisive than in any other part of Europe or Eurasia. At times the region has been a frontier between different empires and civilizations; at other times, it has been a well-integrated part of broader European—even global—economic and political relationships. The ecology of the sea itself set the stage for long periods of interaction and exchange.

The 1966 paper reproduced here, published in an ecumenically-oriented Christian quarterly, Frontier, sees death as ‘the frontier where physical, mental and spiritual meet’. It advises that pain is neither inevitable nor common in the dying, but that when present it can be complex in manifestation. It can however be controlled by a programme of drugs which still allows the patient to remain alert. Such was the case with ‘Louie’, a long term patient who is quoted at length in the article. Louie's words come from a tape-recorded interview with Cicely Saunders and are presented as an example of ‘pain controlled by drugs while yet the patient is able to entertain an intense spiritual awareness of all that is going on’.

This chapter depicts French missionary priests in direct confrontation with their preconceived notions of the United States and as men experiencing life as foreign missionaries for the first time. It is a rendering of missionary life in the trans-Appalachian West and the effects of material deprivation, physical hardship, spiritual suffering, ecclesiastical conflict, and lay obstinacy on the collective performance of the priesthood in frontier settings. During the process of reconciling expectations with experiences, French missionary priests remapped Catholicism in the United States by developing an ecclesiastical network that stretched from Rome to Paris to Baltimore to Bardstown to St. Louis to New Orleans.

Maintaining control once it had been established required rulers to pre-empt or suppress indigenous revolts, defend their frontiers against external threats, and prevent regional commanders, administrators, or elites breaking away from central control. The complexities of frontier defence reflected the ambiguous and unstable character of frontiers as geographical and sociological entities. For most of history, the object of control was demographic space: what mattered were population, resources, and communication networks and such physical spaces as these occupied, rather than physical space as such. The spatial extent of a ruler’s control was defined by the two dimensions of breadth and depth. Maintaining the breadth of control meant securing the frontiers against external attack and preventing regions inside the frontiers from breaking away. The spatial depth of control reflected the ability of rulers and their provincial subordinates to exercise systematic coercion across the land area contained within their frontiers.

This chapter deals with two aspects of Ammianus Marcellinus's account of the satrap Tamsapor's role in the renewal of hostilities between Rome and Persia on Rome's eastern frontier in AD 359. The first section argues that Tamsapor deliberately sabotaged the negotiations initiated by the prefect Musonianus in 357. The reactions and motives of Sapor II and Constantius II are also examined. The second section investigates the precise nature of Tamsapor's dealings with the Roman renegade Antoninus and his sponsorship of Antoninus at the Persian court. The chapter concludes by suggesting some reasons for Ammianus's interest in the episode.

This chapter examines Max Weber's exploration of the American heartland and frontier, with particular emphasis on his experiences in Oklahoma and the Indian Territory. It first considers how the idea for Weber's Oklahoma and Indian Territory trip originated in the first place before discussing the “unique problems” that Weber encountered in the Indian Territory, including questions of tribal membership or citizenship, and land allotment. It then analyzes Weber's claim that the coming of modern industrial civilization led to the rapid disappearance of the romanticized past. As he put it, the “Leatherstocking romanticism” of native life and the frontier was coming to an end. The chapter also explores Weber's views on the construction of “nature,” the emergence of a new world, and traditionalism and concludes with an assessment of the significance of the frontier to Weber's work.

This chapter describes the sport of cowboy action shooting, the gun sport that most explicitly dramatizes the narrative of American Frontier history. It explains that this sport is conducted in a venue that ostensibly gave birth to images of traditional American gender roles and forms of Frontier-oriented entertainment. It argues that cowboy action shooting presents a vision of the American Frontier in which white, middle-class good guys can create small, self-contained communities based on shared values and lifestyles. It describes cowboy shoots governed by the Single Action Shooting Society (SASS).

This chapter examines the condition of roads, armies, and the organization of space in European states during the period from the 13th to the 18th centuries. During this period, the state was the instigator, instrument, and servant of the sciences of distance. It supplied the finances and materials, and directed research as servant-master. This chapter explores the improvements in communication, fortification and frontiers, and the control of the state interior.

This chapter examines the changing political framework of the region from the late nineteenth century through to World War I as fluid political boundaries that were transformed into bordered territories. It describes how local elites in the Yunnan boundary region managed the transition zone of the mountains between Burma and China, and the role that they played in the local political system after the Panthay revolt and just prior to the fall of the Konbaung Dynasty in Burma. The chapter then describes how old and new elites were created in this process of geo-political transformation. It focuses in particular on the eastern borderworld, where great ethnographic complexity became rationalised in line with new and emerging political needs. It describes in detail how a local system of cross-group relations expressed as a ritual system became a model for later Kachin ethno-nationalist ideological expansion influenced by these administrative changes.

This chapter considers the impact of World War II on the Kachin region. It examines evidence for the motivations of Kachin volunteers during the war in the Kachin Levies and other organisations. It examines the demographics of this conflict and its impact on the development of politicised Kachin youth groups. It discusses their role in developing political strategy for Kachin State in the Union of Burma at the Panglong Conference and Frontier Areas Committee of Enquiry in 1947. The chapter also looks at the developments in this region in a broader regional context to understand how related communities in Burma, India, and China interacted with each other and with their respective national governments during the early post-World War II years.

Fortifications are now recognized as a defining feature of the late antique city and in a time of insecurity they were a positive factor for the maintenance of urban life as well as making an important contribution towards imperial defence. But in place of the fora, aqueducts and curiales of the high Roman Empire, the new foundations of the fourth century display new urban typologies derived, in part at least, from patterns of military organization rather than urban organization. This chapter compares the two frontier cities of Amida in Roman Mesopotamia and Tropaeum Traiani in Scythia as examples of new urban foundations in the early fourth century. Detailed structural evidence from the walls of Amida indicates two main phases of construction, one under Valens and a second under Anastasius following the major siege of 502. On the lower Danube the city of Tropaeum Traiani reveals similar features of major defences and urban layout with a range of internal structures including granaries and churches distinct from the typical attributes of the classic Graeco-Roman city.