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In this chapter we review techniques that managers may use to respond to climate change. First, modelling the impacts of climate change on freshwater ecosystems is discussed. While hydro-climatic projections can be used their imprecision requires the selection of robust adaptation options that provide benefits under a range of possible climate outcomes. Second, contested concepts for managing freshwater ecosystems and resources are summarised, and we conclude that they may be used to develop and implement cross-sectoral policies that sustain freshwater ecosystems. Third, options for climate change adaptation for freshwater ecosystems recommends application of six principles, emphasising: accommodation of change; application of ecological and socio-economic targets across multiple scales; maintaining connectivity, conservation of refugia, and representative habitats; initial implementation of no- and low-regret adaptation interventions; agreeing on thresholds for ecological change that trigger new management interventions; and scientific monitoring and evaluation. We conclude by considering how to manage the negative impacts and seize positive synergies in climate change responses: conservation advocates must engage with agriculture, energy, and water resources sectors if freshwater ecosystems are to be incorporated in their decisions.

This introductory chapter provides an overview of the water paradox. Water is essential to life and freshwater on this planet has always been limited. This would suggest that, if water is the most valuable commodity for humans and it is growing scarcer because of its increasing use, then humans ought to be taking care of its main source—freshwater ecosystems. Instead, for thousands and thousands of years, humankind's approach to managing water supplies has been just the opposite. Unfortunately, the consequence of humankind's action and neglect is that the principal source of water—freshwater ecosystems—is under increased pressure and even destruction from both human impacts and environmental change. Indeed, according to the World Economic Forum's annual report Global Risk 2016, over the next decade the biggest threat to the planet will be a global water crisis. A global water crisis will have a number of economic and social implications.

This chapter explores the management of freshwater ecosystems in the US. It provides an overview of threats to US aquatic environments and the health of the nation's water sources; a brief review of existing legal protections; and a summary of growing efforts to protect and restore freshwater ecosystems.

This concluding chapter looks at the future of water. There are two possible paths for managing water. First, if the world continues with inadequate governance and institutions, incorrect market signals, and insufficient innovations to improve efficiency and manage competing demands, most chronic water and scarcity problems will continue to worsen. The world will see a future of declining water security, freshwater ecosystem degradation, and increasing disputes and conflicts over remaining water resources. The alternative path to managing water is the one offered by this book. If, in anticipation of the coming decades of increasing water scarcity, humankind is able to develop appropriate governance and institutions for water management, instigate market and policy reforms, and address global management issues, then improved innovation and investments in new water technologies and better protection of freshwater ecosystems should secure sufficient beneficial water use for a growing world population.

This chapter examines the evolution of the gastropod clade of Caenogastropoda. It explains that caenogastropods comprise about 60% of living gastropod species and the first records of undisputed caenogastropods are from the middle and upper Paleozoic period. The caenogastropods have diversified into a wide range of habitats and have successfully invaded freshwater and terrestrial ecosystems multiple times.