Anthony Scott and Georgina Coustalin
- Published in print:
- 2008
- Published Online:
- May 2008
- ISBN:
- 9780198286035
- eISBN:
- 9780191718410
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198286035.003.0003
- Subject:
- Economics and Finance, Development, Growth, and Environmental
This chapter follows the evolution of rights to use or enjoy streams and lakes. It distinguishes legally ‘land-based’ systems from those that are ‘use-based’. Tracing the alternation or cycling of ...
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This chapter follows the evolution of rights to use or enjoy streams and lakes. It distinguishes legally ‘land-based’ systems from those that are ‘use-based’. Tracing the alternation or cycling of these two systems in four countries, and beginning with a brief survey of Roman water law it shows that that medieval English law regarded rights over fresh water as a continuation of rights over the adjoining land. A change to use-based rights began when mill-owners ‘demanded’ that their water rights be interpreted by the courts to protect private title to a flow; this was accomplished in the Industrial Revolution by recognizing priority in use. This prior-use concept was found inadequate and in the next phase the English courts swung back to a land-based right, adopting ‘natural’-flow and ‘reasonable’-use criteria to decide which cities and factories should have rights. The chapter follows these phases abroad. It describes the western-lands invention of the appropriative-rights doctrine in the US, and its adaptation elsewhere. Throughout, the chapter also refers to changes in ‘prescriptive rights’ to water, distinguishing them from those in the prior-use and prior-appropriation phases. Less
This chapter follows the evolution of rights to use or enjoy streams and lakes. It distinguishes legally ‘land-based’ systems from those that are ‘use-based’. Tracing the alternation or cycling of these two systems in four countries, and beginning with a brief survey of Roman water law it shows that that medieval English law regarded rights over fresh water as a continuation of rights over the adjoining land. A change to use-based rights began when mill-owners ‘demanded’ that their water rights be interpreted by the courts to protect private title to a flow; this was accomplished in the Industrial Revolution by recognizing priority in use. This prior-use concept was found inadequate and in the next phase the English courts swung back to a land-based right, adopting ‘natural’-flow and ‘reasonable’-use criteria to decide which cities and factories should have rights. The chapter follows these phases abroad. It describes the western-lands invention of the appropriative-rights doctrine in the US, and its adaptation elsewhere. Throughout, the chapter also refers to changes in ‘prescriptive rights’ to water, distinguishing them from those in the prior-use and prior-appropriation phases.
Timothy J. Bradley
- Published in print:
- 2008
- Published Online:
- April 2010
- ISBN:
- 9780198569961
- eISBN:
- 9780191728273
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198569961.003.0007
- Subject:
- Biology, Animal Biology
Freshwater habitats are filled with abundant animal life from numerous phyla. Because the osmotic concentration of fresh water is extremely low compared to both extracellular and intracellular ...
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Freshwater habitats are filled with abundant animal life from numerous phyla. Because the osmotic concentration of fresh water is extremely low compared to both extracellular and intracellular fluids, all freshwater animals are hyper-regulators. The influx of water across the integument presents a difficult and costly physiological challenge. Freshwater animals have evolved numerous mechanisms for producing very dilute urine as a means of ridding themselves of this excess water. A second challenge is the requirement to obtain ions from an environment in which ionic concentrations are exceptionally low. Ion uptake is achieved by specialized transport processes in both the integument and the gut. Examples from both invertebrate and vertebrate groups are provided to illustrate the physiological and morphological diversity that exists in freshwater organisms.Less
Freshwater habitats are filled with abundant animal life from numerous phyla. Because the osmotic concentration of fresh water is extremely low compared to both extracellular and intracellular fluids, all freshwater animals are hyper-regulators. The influx of water across the integument presents a difficult and costly physiological challenge. Freshwater animals have evolved numerous mechanisms for producing very dilute urine as a means of ridding themselves of this excess water. A second challenge is the requirement to obtain ions from an environment in which ionic concentrations are exceptionally low. Ion uptake is achieved by specialized transport processes in both the integument and the gut. Examples from both invertebrate and vertebrate groups are provided to illustrate the physiological and morphological diversity that exists in freshwater organisms.
Caroline M. Barron
- Published in print:
- 2004
- Published Online:
- January 2010
- ISBN:
- 9780199257775
- eISBN:
- 9780191717758
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199257775.003.10
- Subject:
- History, British and Irish Medieval History
This chapter examines the effectiveness of civic attempts to regulate and improve the urban environment against a background of population change and epidemic plague. The maintenance of communal ...
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This chapter examines the effectiveness of civic attempts to regulate and improve the urban environment against a background of population change and epidemic plague. The maintenance of communal buildings such as the walls, the implementation of building regulations, and the attempts to preserve green spaces and control livestock and industrial activities are all examined. By communal and charitable efforts the citizens were able to ensure a piped supply of fresh water. The chapter demonstrates the Londoners' concern to ensure that their city was clean and healthy.Less
This chapter examines the effectiveness of civic attempts to regulate and improve the urban environment against a background of population change and epidemic plague. The maintenance of communal buildings such as the walls, the implementation of building regulations, and the attempts to preserve green spaces and control livestock and industrial activities are all examined. By communal and charitable efforts the citizens were able to ensure a piped supply of fresh water. The chapter demonstrates the Londoners' concern to ensure that their city was clean and healthy.
Stanley S. Hillman, Philip C. Withers, Robert C. Drewes, and Stanley D. Hillyard
- Published in print:
- 2008
- Published Online:
- April 2010
- ISBN:
- 9780198570325
- eISBN:
- 9780191728259
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198570325.003.0004
- Subject:
- Biology, Animal Biology, Aquatic Biology
This chapter explores what is known about how amphibians deal with extreme environmental situations, beginning with aquatic environments, both fresh water and marine. It then describes life in ...
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This chapter explores what is known about how amphibians deal with extreme environmental situations, beginning with aquatic environments, both fresh water and marine. It then describes life in extreme terrestrial and underground environments. The next section deals with overwintering in both aquatic and terrestrial environments, and discusses the particular stresses of hypoxia and low temperature. The chapter concludes with a discussion of metabolic depression as an intrinsic metabolic mechanism that extends energy reserves when environmental conditions preclude activity.Less
This chapter explores what is known about how amphibians deal with extreme environmental situations, beginning with aquatic environments, both fresh water and marine. It then describes life in extreme terrestrial and underground environments. The next section deals with overwintering in both aquatic and terrestrial environments, and discusses the particular stresses of hypoxia and low temperature. The chapter concludes with a discussion of metabolic depression as an intrinsic metabolic mechanism that extends energy reserves when environmental conditions preclude activity.
Earl F. Mulderink III
- Published in print:
- 2012
- Published Online:
- September 2012
- ISBN:
- 9780823243341
- eISBN:
- 9780823243389
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Fordham University Press
- DOI:
- 10.5422/fordham/9780823243341.003.0009
- Subject:
- History, Military History
This chapter details efforts by New Bedford's public officials to confront the challenges presented by the Civil War on fiscal management and municipal governance. It examines community debates over ...
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This chapter details efforts by New Bedford's public officials to confront the challenges presented by the Civil War on fiscal management and municipal governance. It examines community debates over wartime costs, maintaining public services, and planning the city's postwar future. New Bedford's local officials coordinated with agents of state and national governments to meet unprecedented military expenses such as bounties. Despite the pressures of an uncertain war and an economic downturn, the city avoided large deficits by cutting costs in key areas such as public schools and collecting taxes with great efficiency. The issue of supplying New Bedford with fresh water, and its huge price tag, divided business and political leaders during a wartime referendum in 1864. Another municipal responsibility impacted directly by the Civil War was New Bedford's generous program of welfare administered by the Overseers of the Poor.Less
This chapter details efforts by New Bedford's public officials to confront the challenges presented by the Civil War on fiscal management and municipal governance. It examines community debates over wartime costs, maintaining public services, and planning the city's postwar future. New Bedford's local officials coordinated with agents of state and national governments to meet unprecedented military expenses such as bounties. Despite the pressures of an uncertain war and an economic downturn, the city avoided large deficits by cutting costs in key areas such as public schools and collecting taxes with great efficiency. The issue of supplying New Bedford with fresh water, and its huge price tag, divided business and political leaders during a wartime referendum in 1864. Another municipal responsibility impacted directly by the Civil War was New Bedford's generous program of welfare administered by the Overseers of the Poor.
Judith S. Weis
- Published in print:
- 2012
- Published Online:
- August 2016
- ISBN:
- 9780801450501
- eISBN:
- 9780801466045
- Item type:
- book
- Publisher:
- Cornell University Press
- DOI:
- 10.7591/cornell/9780801450501.001.0001
- Subject:
- Biology, Animal Biology
The world’s nearly 7,000 species of crabs are immediately recognizable by their claws, sideways movement, stalked eyes, and thick outer shells. These common crustaceans are found internationally, ...
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The world’s nearly 7,000 species of crabs are immediately recognizable by their claws, sideways movement, stalked eyes, and thick outer shells. These common crustaceans are found internationally, thriving in various habitats from the edge of the sea to the depths of the ocean, in fresh water or on land. Despite having the same basic body type as decapod crustaceans—true crabs have heavy exoskeletons and ten limbs with front pincer claws—crabs come in an enormous variety of shapes and sizes, from the near microscopic to the giant Japanese spider crab. This book provides an engaging and informative tour of the remarkable world of crabs, highlighting their unique biology and natural history. It introduces recently discovered crabs such as the Yeti crab found in deep sea vents, explains what scientists are learning about blue and hermit crabs commonly found at the shore, and gives us insight into the lifecycles of the king and Dungeness crabs typically seen only on dinner plates. Among the topics covered are the evolution and classification of crabs, their habitats, unique adaptations to water and land, reproduction and development, behavior, ecology, and threats, including up-to-date research. Crabs are of special interest to biologists for their communication behaviors, sexual dimorphism, and use of chemical stimuli and touch receptors, and the book explains the importance of new scientific discoveries.Less
The world’s nearly 7,000 species of crabs are immediately recognizable by their claws, sideways movement, stalked eyes, and thick outer shells. These common crustaceans are found internationally, thriving in various habitats from the edge of the sea to the depths of the ocean, in fresh water or on land. Despite having the same basic body type as decapod crustaceans—true crabs have heavy exoskeletons and ten limbs with front pincer claws—crabs come in an enormous variety of shapes and sizes, from the near microscopic to the giant Japanese spider crab. This book provides an engaging and informative tour of the remarkable world of crabs, highlighting their unique biology and natural history. It introduces recently discovered crabs such as the Yeti crab found in deep sea vents, explains what scientists are learning about blue and hermit crabs commonly found at the shore, and gives us insight into the lifecycles of the king and Dungeness crabs typically seen only on dinner plates. Among the topics covered are the evolution and classification of crabs, their habitats, unique adaptations to water and land, reproduction and development, behavior, ecology, and threats, including up-to-date research. Crabs are of special interest to biologists for their communication behaviors, sexual dimorphism, and use of chemical stimuli and touch receptors, and the book explains the importance of new scientific discoveries.
Angela H. Arthington
- Published in print:
- 2012
- Published Online:
- May 2013
- ISBN:
- 9780520273696
- eISBN:
- 9780520953451
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- University of California Press
- DOI:
- 10.1525/california/9780520273696.003.0001
- Subject:
- Biology, Biodiversity / Conservation Biology
Escalating human demands for fresh water are jeopardising the intrinsic biodiversity values, ecological health, and vital ecosystem services of the rivers, wetlands, and estuaries upon which millions ...
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Escalating human demands for fresh water are jeopardising the intrinsic biodiversity values, ecological health, and vital ecosystem services of the rivers, wetlands, and estuaries upon which millions of humans depend for water, food, and secure housing, as well as for quality of life, health, and prosperity. Climate change exacerbates these pressures by affecting the global water cycle, freshwater availability, and the ecological health of aquatic ecosystems. Restoration of biodiversity, ecosystem function, and resiliency is a global imperative for water managers, scientists, and civil society. This chapter introduces the main argument of the book, which is that to sustain freshwater and estuarine ecosystems the natural volumes and variability patterns of standing and flowing water must be maintained through provision of “environmental flows.”Less
Escalating human demands for fresh water are jeopardising the intrinsic biodiversity values, ecological health, and vital ecosystem services of the rivers, wetlands, and estuaries upon which millions of humans depend for water, food, and secure housing, as well as for quality of life, health, and prosperity. Climate change exacerbates these pressures by affecting the global water cycle, freshwater availability, and the ecological health of aquatic ecosystems. Restoration of biodiversity, ecosystem function, and resiliency is a global imperative for water managers, scientists, and civil society. This chapter introduces the main argument of the book, which is that to sustain freshwater and estuarine ecosystems the natural volumes and variability patterns of standing and flowing water must be maintained through provision of “environmental flows.”
Andrew T. Guzman
- Published in print:
- 2014
- Published Online:
- February 2015
- ISBN:
- 9780199933877
- eISBN:
- 9780190252694
- Item type:
- book
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:osobl/9780199933877.001.0001
- Subject:
- Political Science, Environmental Politics
Deniers of climate change sometimes quip that claims about global warming are more about political science than climate science. They are wrong on the science, but may be right with respect to its ...
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Deniers of climate change sometimes quip that claims about global warming are more about political science than climate science. They are wrong on the science, but may be right with respect to its political implications. A hotter world, this book argues, will bring unprecedented migrations, famine, war, and disease. It will be a social and political disaster of the first order. This book takes climate change out of the realm of scientific abstraction to explore its real-world consequences. The text takes as its starting point a fairly optimistic outcome in the range predicted by scientists: a 2 degrees Celsius increase in average global temperatures. Even this modest rise would lead to catastrophic environmental and social problems. Already we can see how it will work: The ten warmest years since 1880 have all occurred since 1998, and one estimate of the annual global death toll caused by climate change is now 300,000. That number might rise to 500,000 by 2030. This shows how climate change is already playing out in the real world. Rising seas will swamp island nations like Maldives; coastal food-producing regions in Bangladesh will be flooded; and millions will be forced to migrate into cities or possibly “climate-refugee camps.” Even as seas rise, melting glaciers in the Andes and the Himalayas will deprive millions upon millions of people of fresh water, threatening major cities and further straining food production. Prolonged droughts in the Sahel region of Africa have already helped produce mass violence in Darfur.Less
Deniers of climate change sometimes quip that claims about global warming are more about political science than climate science. They are wrong on the science, but may be right with respect to its political implications. A hotter world, this book argues, will bring unprecedented migrations, famine, war, and disease. It will be a social and political disaster of the first order. This book takes climate change out of the realm of scientific abstraction to explore its real-world consequences. The text takes as its starting point a fairly optimistic outcome in the range predicted by scientists: a 2 degrees Celsius increase in average global temperatures. Even this modest rise would lead to catastrophic environmental and social problems. Already we can see how it will work: The ten warmest years since 1880 have all occurred since 1998, and one estimate of the annual global death toll caused by climate change is now 300,000. That number might rise to 500,000 by 2030. This shows how climate change is already playing out in the real world. Rising seas will swamp island nations like Maldives; coastal food-producing regions in Bangladesh will be flooded; and millions will be forced to migrate into cities or possibly “climate-refugee camps.” Even as seas rise, melting glaciers in the Andes and the Himalayas will deprive millions upon millions of people of fresh water, threatening major cities and further straining food production. Prolonged droughts in the Sahel region of Africa have already helped produce mass violence in Darfur.
