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Marmier was now over 70 years old, and the coming decade saw him limiting his activities to the Parisian sphere. He had naturally experienced a decline in his physical vigour, although his mind remained active and his general state of health permitted him to pursue many of his former interests. Marmier maintained a steady flow of publications and settled into a new routine centred principally on his sessions at the Bibliothèque Sainte–Geneviève on Saturdays, and his Thursday meetings at the Académie française, which he attended assiduously right up to the end of his life. He died on 11 October 1892. Almost all the obituaries mentioned his travels, his role in introducing foreign literature to France, his membership of the Académie française, and his personal qualities.

This chapter discusses how translation has affected literature. When we assess criticism of translated literature as part of the larger national conversation about the novel's purpose, the formation of the national literary canon comes to resemble a process of negotiating the foreignness that lies within it and not solely a process of casting the foreign out. In doing so, we ascribe historicity to the formation of national literary history itself, reformulating not just the position of Arabic in an imagined world literary canon but also the modern Arabic literary canon. Translation helped to shape a category of national literature that belonged in turn to a comparative process. Reading the history of the novel in translation forces us to recast national literary histories, to read the nation in translation. To locate foreign literature within national literary history at the moment of its formation is only possible if one uncovers the impact that translations had on “original” writing, discourses and institutions of modernity, and reading practices. Understanding that history challenges us to read novels' depiction of even national environments or characters in the comparative critical context in which they were written and to see “national realism” as a mode that was canonized through comparative and translational methodologies and as perhaps the culmination of a history of translation.

At the Curtis Institute of Music, Samuel Barber pursued further studies in foreign literature and language, mostly with a European background. This accounts for his pursuit of the perfection of his craft. He indulged in his chosen culture inspirations to add more character and authenticity to his work. Barber's music continued to evolve, mixing in English, German, and French overtones. He however, grew very restless as a student. He continued to travel in Europe together with his close friend from the Curtis Institute, Gian Menotti. At the same time, his orchestra pieces started to come out regularly in New York, and the piece Dover Beach was met with good critical reviews. He also moved into singing as a temporary stint partly as a means to earn some extra income, his first recording being Dover Beach.

This concluding chapter makes some generalizations about the significance of the alien or exotic as a subject in literature, specifically in the case of modern Japanese literature. Discussion of themes such as the uncanny or the gothic narrative is not all that common in studies of Japanese literature. Much more common is a direct tracing of influence from foreign literatures on the works of Japanese writers. Ultimately, all cultures are hybrid; it is just that some are more so than others. This statement reflects the reality that the cultural history of all human societies is a history of the encounter with the Other, and the subsequent adaptations and compromises that result are but one step in a long line of such encounters.

This chapter explores the translators’ craftsmanship when shaping the works for publication; it underlines how selecting and editing the materials inevitably transformed them. This meant co-translation could entail a specific form of co-authorship, the translations never appearing in quite the same format as the texts which Koteliansky acquired from his Russian and Soviet networks. Shaping them for a different readership could imply modifications in format, lay-out and even genre; the addition of specifically-selected critical materials also impacted on readerships, sometimes making the new works into modern case-books as well as literary revelations. Case studies demonstrate the timely, modern image of Tolstoy being fashioned in translation, and a carefully crafted vision of Chekhov as a playwright. Similarly, the critical materials added to works by Sophie Tolstoy and Dostoevsky reveal a new emphasis on alternative textual readings and critical thinking.