Quentin Cronk
- Published in print:
- 2009
- Published Online:
- May 2009
- ISBN:
- 9780199550357
- eISBN:
- 9780191720154
- Item type:
- book
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199550357.001.1
- Subject:
- Biology, Plant Sciences and Forestry, Developmental Biology
This book surveys the momentous morphological change in plant evolution that created the terrestrial biosphere as we know it today. It takes as its premise that the study of plant evolution at its ...
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This book surveys the momentous morphological change in plant evolution that created the terrestrial biosphere as we know it today. It takes as its premise that the study of plant evolution at its grandest is the study of how mutations in genes have changed the way the planet functions. The evolution of the leaf, for instance, change terrestrial carbon cycling and primary productivity, so changing the earth's atmosphere and the distribution of carbon. The book charts the rise to complexity of the three many organs systems of complex land plants, the axis or stem, the leaf, and the root. These organs system are surveyed morphologically in the light of empirical morphology, in which organ concepts are considered as hypotheses to be tested in a developmental, molecular, and phylogenetic framework. It also tackles the evolution of the seed (via heterospory and covering of the megasporangium) and the flower (by complex patterning of sporophylls and sterile phyllomes). All this is placed where possible in its molecular context, with the aim of demonstrating how evolving gene networks have given rise to increasing morphological complexity.Less
This book surveys the momentous morphological change in plant evolution that created the terrestrial biosphere as we know it today. It takes as its premise that the study of plant evolution at its grandest is the study of how mutations in genes have changed the way the planet functions. The evolution of the leaf, for instance, change terrestrial carbon cycling and primary productivity, so changing the earth's atmosphere and the distribution of carbon. The book charts the rise to complexity of the three many organs systems of complex land plants, the axis or stem, the leaf, and the root. These organs system are surveyed morphologically in the light of empirical morphology, in which organ concepts are considered as hypotheses to be tested in a developmental, molecular, and phylogenetic framework. It also tackles the evolution of the seed (via heterospory and covering of the megasporangium) and the flower (by complex patterning of sporophylls and sterile phyllomes). All this is placed where possible in its molecular context, with the aim of demonstrating how evolving gene networks have given rise to increasing morphological complexity.
Pat Willmer
- Published in print:
- 2011
- Published Online:
- October 2017
- ISBN:
- 9780691128610
- eISBN:
- 9781400838943
- Item type:
- book
- Publisher:
- Princeton University Press
- DOI:
- 10.23943/princeton/9780691128610.001.0001
- Subject:
- Biology, Ecology
This book is a comprehensive reference to all aspects of pollination biology—and the first fully up-to-date resource of its kind to appear in decades. The beautifully illustrated book describes how ...
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This book is a comprehensive reference to all aspects of pollination biology—and the first fully up-to-date resource of its kind to appear in decades. The beautifully illustrated book describes how flowers use colors, shapes, and scents to advertise themselves; how they offer pollen and nectar as rewards; and how they share complex interactions with beetles, birds, bats, bees, and other creatures. The ecology of these interactions is covered in depth, including the timing and patterning of flowering, competition among flowering plants to attract certain visitors and deter others, and the many ways that plants and animals can cheat each other. The book pays special attention to the prevalence of specialization and generalization in animal–flower interactions, and examines how a lack of distinction between casual visitors and true pollinators can produce misleading conclusions about flower evolution and animal–flower mutualism. The book also gives insights into the vital pollination services that animals provide to crops and native flora, and sets these issues in the context of today’s global pollination crisis.Less
This book is a comprehensive reference to all aspects of pollination biology—and the first fully up-to-date resource of its kind to appear in decades. The beautifully illustrated book describes how flowers use colors, shapes, and scents to advertise themselves; how they offer pollen and nectar as rewards; and how they share complex interactions with beetles, birds, bats, bees, and other creatures. The ecology of these interactions is covered in depth, including the timing and patterning of flowering, competition among flowering plants to attract certain visitors and deter others, and the many ways that plants and animals can cheat each other. The book pays special attention to the prevalence of specialization and generalization in animal–flower interactions, and examines how a lack of distinction between casual visitors and true pollinators can produce misleading conclusions about flower evolution and animal–flower mutualism. The book also gives insights into the vital pollination services that animals provide to crops and native flora, and sets these issues in the context of today’s global pollination crisis.
Pat Willmer
- Published in print:
- 2011
- Published Online:
- October 2017
- ISBN:
- 9780691128610
- eISBN:
- 9781400838943
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Princeton University Press
- DOI:
- 10.23943/princeton/9780691128610.003.0021
- Subject:
- Biology, Ecology
This chapter examines the factors that affect the timing and patterning of flowering, as well as the effects of different flowering patterns on pollination outcomes. Plants should flower in ways that ...
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This chapter examines the factors that affect the timing and patterning of flowering, as well as the effects of different flowering patterns on pollination outcomes. Plants should flower in ways that maximize their own reproductive success. The “flowering pattern” is a composite of the timing and frequency of individual flowers opening, and also of floral longevity. These phenological factors vary between and within species. Flowering phenology can influence the plant’s manipulation of its visitors in ways that should increase either or both of pollen transfer and pollen receipt. The chapter first considers the frequency of flowering and the shape of the flowering period before discussing flower longevity and flowering period. It also explores the question of how big a flower should be, how many flowers a plant should have at any one time, what determines the phenological parameters for a particular plant species, and where the flowers should be placed.Less
This chapter examines the factors that affect the timing and patterning of flowering, as well as the effects of different flowering patterns on pollination outcomes. Plants should flower in ways that maximize their own reproductive success. The “flowering pattern” is a composite of the timing and frequency of individual flowers opening, and also of floral longevity. These phenological factors vary between and within species. Flowering phenology can influence the plant’s manipulation of its visitors in ways that should increase either or both of pollen transfer and pollen receipt. The chapter first considers the frequency of flowering and the shape of the flowering period before discussing flower longevity and flowering period. It also explores the question of how big a flower should be, how many flowers a plant should have at any one time, what determines the phenological parameters for a particular plant species, and where the flowers should be placed.
Beverley J. Glover
- Published in print:
- 2007
- Published Online:
- January 2008
- ISBN:
- 9780198565970
- eISBN:
- 9780191714009
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198565970.003.0018
- Subject:
- Biology, Plant Sciences and Forestry
This chapter investigates whether the different shapes, structures, and colours that flowers produce have the potential to enhance pollinator visitation. To do this, they must fulfil two criteria. ...
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This chapter investigates whether the different shapes, structures, and colours that flowers produce have the potential to enhance pollinator visitation. To do this, they must fulfil two criteria. First, they must be visible to the appropriate pollinator, or detectable using some other sense. Secondly, the pollinator must discriminate between different floral forms. Simply because a change in floral form is detectable to an animal, it does not necessarily follow that the animal will discriminate between the original and the novel form. Such discrimination will only occur if one form provides an advantage to the animal. This chapter begins by discussing the current evidence on what different pollinating animals can see and detect in other ways. It then considers the experimental evidence that pollinators do discriminate between different floral forms, focussing on flower colour, flower shape, and flower scent.Less
This chapter investigates whether the different shapes, structures, and colours that flowers produce have the potential to enhance pollinator visitation. To do this, they must fulfil two criteria. First, they must be visible to the appropriate pollinator, or detectable using some other sense. Secondly, the pollinator must discriminate between different floral forms. Simply because a change in floral form is detectable to an animal, it does not necessarily follow that the animal will discriminate between the original and the novel form. Such discrimination will only occur if one form provides an advantage to the animal. This chapter begins by discussing the current evidence on what different pollinating animals can see and detect in other ways. It then considers the experimental evidence that pollinators do discriminate between different floral forms, focussing on flower colour, flower shape, and flower scent.
Günter P. Wagner
- Published in print:
- 2014
- Published Online:
- October 2017
- ISBN:
- 9780691156460
- eISBN:
- 9781400851461
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Princeton University Press
- DOI:
- 10.23943/princeton/9780691156460.003.0013
- Subject:
- Biology, Evolutionary Biology / Genetics
This chapter focuses on the developmental evolution of flowers and flower organ identity. It reviews some of the most important insights that have been gained from research on the developmental ...
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This chapter focuses on the developmental evolution of flowers and flower organ identity. It reviews some of the most important insights that have been gained from research on the developmental evolution of flowers regarding the nature of organ identity, organ integration, and the origin of evolutionary novelties. The chapter begins with a discussion of the uniqueness of flowers and the evolution of phylogeny and flower characters in angiosperms. It then examines the genetics of canonical flower development, along with the developmental genetic architecture of the flower Bauplan. It also considers flower variation and the identities of novel flower organs, the origin of the bisexual flower developmental type, perianth evolution and the origin of petals, and the realization that additional organ identities can evolve after gene duplications.Less
This chapter focuses on the developmental evolution of flowers and flower organ identity. It reviews some of the most important insights that have been gained from research on the developmental evolution of flowers regarding the nature of organ identity, organ integration, and the origin of evolutionary novelties. The chapter begins with a discussion of the uniqueness of flowers and the evolution of phylogeny and flower characters in angiosperms. It then examines the genetics of canonical flower development, along with the developmental genetic architecture of the flower Bauplan. It also considers flower variation and the identities of novel flower organs, the origin of the bisexual flower developmental type, perianth evolution and the origin of petals, and the realization that additional organ identities can evolve after gene duplications.
Ron Johnston (ed.)
- Published in print:
- 2011
- Published Online:
- January 2012
- ISBN:
- 9780197264775
- eISBN:
- 9780191734984
- Item type:
- book
- Publisher:
- British Academy
- DOI:
- 10.5871/bacad/9780197264775.001.0001
- Subject:
- History, Cultural History
This volume contains sixteen chapters which contain the text of lectures delivered at the British Academy in 2008–10. From romantic love in sub-Saharan Africa to the British industrial revolution, ...
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This volume contains sixteen chapters which contain the text of lectures delivered at the British Academy in 2008–10. From romantic love in sub-Saharan Africa to the British industrial revolution, from John Donne to Arthur Miller, from surrealism to Chinese flower imagery, this book demonstrates unparalleled breadth and depth of scholarship.Less
This volume contains sixteen chapters which contain the text of lectures delivered at the British Academy in 2008–10. From romantic love in sub-Saharan Africa to the British industrial revolution, from John Donne to Arthur Miller, from surrealism to Chinese flower imagery, this book demonstrates unparalleled breadth and depth of scholarship.
Beverley J. Glover
- Published in print:
- 2007
- Published Online:
- January 2008
- ISBN:
- 9780198565970
- eISBN:
- 9780191714009
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198565970.003.0010
- Subject:
- Biology, Plant Sciences and Forestry
Flower development operates through the activities of a set of transcription factors regulating the structural genes necessary for correct organ development in the correct position. The majority of ...
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Flower development operates through the activities of a set of transcription factors regulating the structural genes necessary for correct organ development in the correct position. The majority of these ABC genes encode MADS box transcription factors, a very ancient family of DNA binding proteins. By tracing the evolutionary history of this gene family, the molecular processes which lie behind the evolution of flowers can be investigated. Since flowers are one of the key distinguishing features of the angiosperms, and have been argued to be responsible for their astonishing radiation into the most species rich plant division by far, the evolution of the MADS box family is of particular interest in reconstructing plant evolutionary history.Less
Flower development operates through the activities of a set of transcription factors regulating the structural genes necessary for correct organ development in the correct position. The majority of these ABC genes encode MADS box transcription factors, a very ancient family of DNA binding proteins. By tracing the evolutionary history of this gene family, the molecular processes which lie behind the evolution of flowers can be investigated. Since flowers are one of the key distinguishing features of the angiosperms, and have been argued to be responsible for their astonishing radiation into the most species rich plant division by far, the evolution of the MADS box family is of particular interest in reconstructing plant evolutionary history.
Thomas R. Nevin
- Published in print:
- 2006
- Published Online:
- September 2006
- ISBN:
- 9780195307214
- eISBN:
- 9780199785032
- Item type:
- book
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/0195307216.001.0001
- Subject:
- Religion, History of Christianity
Thérèse of Lisieux (1873-1897), also known as St. Thérèse of the Child Jesus and the Holy Face, and popularly referred to as the Little Flower, is arguably one of the most beloved women in modern ...
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Thérèse of Lisieux (1873-1897), also known as St. Thérèse of the Child Jesus and the Holy Face, and popularly referred to as the Little Flower, is arguably one of the most beloved women in modern history. A Carmelite nun, doctor of the church, and patron of a score of causes, she was famously acclaimed by Pope Pius X as the greatest saint of modern times, and called a living icon of God by Pope John Paul II. Her autobiography, Story of a Soul, has been translated into more than sixty languages. Having long transcended national and linguistic boundaries, she has crossed even religious ones; as daughter of Allah, she is venerated widely in Islamic cultures. This book draws on previously untapped archival sources from the Carmel of Lisieux, numerous untranslated documents, formative texts of Carmelite spirituality, childhood readings, and unpublished photographs to provide a portrait of the saint's life and thoughts. It explores the dynamics of her family life and the early development of her spirituality, drawing on the correspondence of her mother and documenting her influence on Thérèse's autobiography and spirituality. It also charts the development of Thérèse 's career as a writer and gives close attention to her poetry and plays usually dismissed as undistinguished arguing that they have great value as texts by which she addressed and informed her Carmelite community.Less
Thérèse of Lisieux (1873-1897), also known as St. Thérèse of the Child Jesus and the Holy Face, and popularly referred to as the Little Flower, is arguably one of the most beloved women in modern history. A Carmelite nun, doctor of the church, and patron of a score of causes, she was famously acclaimed by Pope Pius X as the greatest saint of modern times, and called a living icon of God by Pope John Paul II. Her autobiography, Story of a Soul, has been translated into more than sixty languages. Having long transcended national and linguistic boundaries, she has crossed even religious ones; as daughter of Allah, she is venerated widely in Islamic cultures. This book draws on previously untapped archival sources from the Carmel of Lisieux, numerous untranslated documents, formative texts of Carmelite spirituality, childhood readings, and unpublished photographs to provide a portrait of the saint's life and thoughts. It explores the dynamics of her family life and the early development of her spirituality, drawing on the correspondence of her mother and documenting her influence on Thérèse's autobiography and spirituality. It also charts the development of Thérèse 's career as a writer and gives close attention to her poetry and plays usually dismissed as undistinguished arguing that they have great value as texts by which she addressed and informed her Carmelite community.
Pat Willmer
- Published in print:
- 2011
- Published Online:
- October 2017
- ISBN:
- 9780691128610
- eISBN:
- 9781400838943
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Princeton University Press
- DOI:
- 10.23943/princeton/9780691128610.003.0013
- Subject:
- Biology, Ecology
This chapter focuses on pollination by flies, a very diverse group of insects of the order Diptera. Many types of fly have the ability to regurgitate saliva onto potential foodstuffs, making the ...
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This chapter focuses on pollination by flies, a very diverse group of insects of the order Diptera. Many types of fly have the ability to regurgitate saliva onto potential foodstuffs, making the material more liquid and manageable, and some use “bubbling” behavior to speed evaporation of excessively dilute fluids. Many groups have a strong preference for sugary fluids, and therefore commonly take some nectar as part of their adult diet; others feed on pollen. The chapter first provides an overview of the fly’s feeding apparatus as well as its sensory and behavioral capacities before discussing generalist flowers that are favored by a multitude of flies. It then considers specialist flower types that attract nectar-feeding flies, hoverfly flower types, and carrion-fly flower types. It concludes with an analysis of some other specialist cases of fly pollination of flowers.Less
This chapter focuses on pollination by flies, a very diverse group of insects of the order Diptera. Many types of fly have the ability to regurgitate saliva onto potential foodstuffs, making the material more liquid and manageable, and some use “bubbling” behavior to speed evaporation of excessively dilute fluids. Many groups have a strong preference for sugary fluids, and therefore commonly take some nectar as part of their adult diet; others feed on pollen. The chapter first provides an overview of the fly’s feeding apparatus as well as its sensory and behavioral capacities before discussing generalist flowers that are favored by a multitude of flies. It then considers specialist flower types that attract nectar-feeding flies, hoverfly flower types, and carrion-fly flower types. It concludes with an analysis of some other specialist cases of fly pollination of flowers.
Pat Willmer
- Published in print:
- 2011
- Published Online:
- October 2017
- ISBN:
- 9780691128610
- eISBN:
- 9781400838943
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Princeton University Press
- DOI:
- 10.23943/princeton/9780691128610.003.0023
- Subject:
- Biology, Ecology
This chapter examines how flowers cheat visitors and other flowers. Pollination is not an altruistic exercise; there is a conflict of needs that makes both plants and pollinators liable to cheat to ...
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This chapter examines how flowers cheat visitors and other flowers. Pollination is not an altruistic exercise; there is a conflict of needs that makes both plants and pollinators liable to cheat to their own benefit. Deception is very common in pollination biology. For a plant, this essentially means getting pollinated and hence fertilized without giving up any reward or resources. This can commonly be achieved by resembling a rewarding species. For a visiting animal, cheating involves extracting nectar or pollen in ways that do not carry any pollen to another flower. The chapter discusses mimicry in flowers and aids to mimicry, including pseudoflowers, pseudonectar, and pseudopollen and pseudoanthers. It also looks at empty flowers as mimics and cheats before concluding with an analysis of mimicry of objects other than flowers, such as reproductive mimicry of brood sites and potential mates (pseudocopulation).Less
This chapter examines how flowers cheat visitors and other flowers. Pollination is not an altruistic exercise; there is a conflict of needs that makes both plants and pollinators liable to cheat to their own benefit. Deception is very common in pollination biology. For a plant, this essentially means getting pollinated and hence fertilized without giving up any reward or resources. This can commonly be achieved by resembling a rewarding species. For a visiting animal, cheating involves extracting nectar or pollen in ways that do not carry any pollen to another flower. The chapter discusses mimicry in flowers and aids to mimicry, including pseudoflowers, pseudonectar, and pseudopollen and pseudoanthers. It also looks at empty flowers as mimics and cheats before concluding with an analysis of mimicry of objects other than flowers, such as reproductive mimicry of brood sites and potential mates (pseudocopulation).
Pat Willmer
- Published in print:
- 2011
- Published Online:
- October 2017
- ISBN:
- 9780691128610
- eISBN:
- 9781400838943
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Princeton University Press
- DOI:
- 10.23943/princeton/9780691128610.003.0004
- Subject:
- Biology, Ecology
This chapter examines the evolution of flowers, pollination, and plant diversity. There is good evidence for pollinator-mediated selection and appropriate trait heritability in flowers, and there are ...
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This chapter examines the evolution of flowers, pollination, and plant diversity. There is good evidence for pollinator-mediated selection and appropriate trait heritability in flowers, and there are well-established mechanisms by which this could bring about floral change, reproductive isolation, and evolutionary divergence or specialization. The chapter first considers the origin and early evolution of flowers before discussing the diversification of angiosperms. It then explores the advantages of animal pollination and goes on to discuss the extent to which pollination may have contributed to floral variation, plant speciation, and plant diversification. In particular, it explains whether pollinators select for floral divergence and describes five ways in which floral divergence could arise by selection: adaptation to distinct niches, character displacement, adaptive “wandering,” character correlations, and genetic drift.Less
This chapter examines the evolution of flowers, pollination, and plant diversity. There is good evidence for pollinator-mediated selection and appropriate trait heritability in flowers, and there are well-established mechanisms by which this could bring about floral change, reproductive isolation, and evolutionary divergence or specialization. The chapter first considers the origin and early evolution of flowers before discussing the diversification of angiosperms. It then explores the advantages of animal pollination and goes on to discuss the extent to which pollination may have contributed to floral variation, plant speciation, and plant diversification. In particular, it explains whether pollinators select for floral divergence and describes five ways in which floral divergence could arise by selection: adaptation to distinct niches, character displacement, adaptive “wandering,” character correlations, and genetic drift.
Joanna Putterill, Christine Stockum, and Guy Warman
- Published in print:
- 2009
- Published Online:
- May 2010
- ISBN:
- 9780195335903
- eISBN:
- 9780199775446
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195335903.003.0001
- Subject:
- Biology, Animal Biology
This chapter provides an overview of the theoretical models proposed to explain the mechanisms by which photoperiodic time measurement is achieved and our current understanding of the molecular basis ...
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This chapter provides an overview of the theoretical models proposed to explain the mechanisms by which photoperiodic time measurement is achieved and our current understanding of the molecular basis of photoperiodic flowering in Arabidopsis. It also highlights some of the recent discoveries about the biochemical activities and function of the genes, including the exciting recent identification of FT protein as a florigen.Less
This chapter provides an overview of the theoretical models proposed to explain the mechanisms by which photoperiodic time measurement is achieved and our current understanding of the molecular basis of photoperiodic flowering in Arabidopsis. It also highlights some of the recent discoveries about the biochemical activities and function of the genes, including the exciting recent identification of FT protein as a florigen.
Ryosuke Hayama
- Published in print:
- 2009
- Published Online:
- May 2010
- ISBN:
- 9780195335903
- eISBN:
- 9780199775446
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195335903.003.0003
- Subject:
- Biology, Animal Biology
This chapter introduces a mechanism of photoperiodic flowering response in Pharbitis, drawing on the physiological and molecular genetic studies carried out to date. In Pharbitis, a circadian system ...
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This chapter introduces a mechanism of photoperiodic flowering response in Pharbitis, drawing on the physiological and molecular genetic studies carried out to date. In Pharbitis, a circadian system whose phase is set by lights off through the action of red, far-red, and/or blue light during the light period, controls the photoperiodic flowering response. This circadian system may be distinct from that which controls other circadian rhythms, such as CAB gene expression. This circadian clock determines the phase of one or more clock-controlled genes, which generate a dusk-set activity rhythm in the dark and induce PnFT expression if the dark period is sufficiently long. In this model, one or more clock-controlled genes may be activated specifically in the dark, while red light may directly inhibit such activity during the light period. This mechanism is in contrast to that proposed for Arabidopsis and rice, both of which possess a mechanism for measuring the length of the day in which a clock-controlled gene, whose phase is mainly set by lights on at dawn, is directly activated by light posttranscriptionally.Less
This chapter introduces a mechanism of photoperiodic flowering response in Pharbitis, drawing on the physiological and molecular genetic studies carried out to date. In Pharbitis, a circadian system whose phase is set by lights off through the action of red, far-red, and/or blue light during the light period, controls the photoperiodic flowering response. This circadian system may be distinct from that which controls other circadian rhythms, such as CAB gene expression. This circadian clock determines the phase of one or more clock-controlled genes, which generate a dusk-set activity rhythm in the dark and induce PnFT expression if the dark period is sufficiently long. In this model, one or more clock-controlled genes may be activated specifically in the dark, while red light may directly inhibit such activity during the light period. This mechanism is in contrast to that proposed for Arabidopsis and rice, both of which possess a mechanism for measuring the length of the day in which a clock-controlled gene, whose phase is mainly set by lights on at dawn, is directly activated by light posttranscriptionally.
Pat Willmer
- Published in print:
- 2011
- Published Online:
- October 2017
- ISBN:
- 9780691128610
- eISBN:
- 9781400838943
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Princeton University Press
- DOI:
- 10.23943/princeton/9780691128610.003.0011
- Subject:
- Biology, Ecology
This chapter examines pollination syndromes, floral constancy, and pollinator effectiveness. Flowers show enormous adaptive radiation, but the same kind of flower reappears by convergent evolution in ...
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This chapter examines pollination syndromes, floral constancy, and pollinator effectiveness. Flowers show enormous adaptive radiation, but the same kind of flower reappears by convergent evolution in many different families. Thus many families produce rather similar, simple bowl-shaped flowers like buttercups; many produce similar zygomorphic tubular lipped flowers; and many produce fluffy flower heads of massed (often white) florets. These broad flower types are the basis of the idea of pollination syndromes—the flowers have converged on certain morphologies and reward patterns because they are exploiting the abilities and preferences of particular kinds of visitor. After providing an overview of pollination syndromes, the chapter explains why pollination syndromes can be defended. It then considers flower constancy, along with the distinction between flower visitors and effective pollinators. It concludes with some observations on how flower visitors can contribute to speciation of plants through specialization and through their constancy.Less
This chapter examines pollination syndromes, floral constancy, and pollinator effectiveness. Flowers show enormous adaptive radiation, but the same kind of flower reappears by convergent evolution in many different families. Thus many families produce rather similar, simple bowl-shaped flowers like buttercups; many produce similar zygomorphic tubular lipped flowers; and many produce fluffy flower heads of massed (often white) florets. These broad flower types are the basis of the idea of pollination syndromes—the flowers have converged on certain morphologies and reward patterns because they are exploiting the abilities and preferences of particular kinds of visitor. After providing an overview of pollination syndromes, the chapter explains why pollination syndromes can be defended. It then considers flower constancy, along with the distinction between flower visitors and effective pollinators. It concludes with some observations on how flower visitors can contribute to speciation of plants through specialization and through their constancy.
Pat Willmer
- Published in print:
- 2011
- Published Online:
- October 2017
- ISBN:
- 9780691128610
- eISBN:
- 9781400838943
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Princeton University Press
- DOI:
- 10.23943/princeton/9780691128610.003.0012
- Subject:
- Biology, Ecology
This chapter focuses on generalist flowers and generalist visitors. There are regular flower visitors that spend some part of most of their adult lives feeding in flowers, and they can be seen as a ...
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This chapter focuses on generalist flowers and generalist visitors. There are regular flower visitors that spend some part of most of their adult lives feeding in flowers, and they can be seen as a generalist flower visitor cohort, constituting a predictable part of the visitor spectrum of some kinds of flowers. These regular visitors include a range of beetles, and some social and solitary wasps, together with a few more unusual taxa. Inevitably they generate extremely varied visitation patterns. The chapter examines the shared characteristics of visitors and the flowers that they frequent: these include beetles, wasps, ants, and thrips. The chapter considers other insects such as cockroaches, grasshoppers, and bugs.Less
This chapter focuses on generalist flowers and generalist visitors. There are regular flower visitors that spend some part of most of their adult lives feeding in flowers, and they can be seen as a generalist flower visitor cohort, constituting a predictable part of the visitor spectrum of some kinds of flowers. These regular visitors include a range of beetles, and some social and solitary wasps, together with a few more unusual taxa. Inevitably they generate extremely varied visitation patterns. The chapter examines the shared characteristics of visitors and the flowers that they frequent: these include beetles, wasps, ants, and thrips. The chapter considers other insects such as cockroaches, grasshoppers, and bugs.
Pat Willmer
- Published in print:
- 2011
- Published Online:
- October 2017
- ISBN:
- 9780691128610
- eISBN:
- 9781400838943
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Princeton University Press
- DOI:
- 10.23943/princeton/9780691128610.003.0014
- Subject:
- Biology, Ecology
This chapter focuses on pollination by butterflies and moths, which belong to the order Lepidoptera. Lepidopterans are split into four suborders, but all the flower visitors occur in about sixteen ...
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This chapter focuses on pollination by butterflies and moths, which belong to the order Lepidoptera. Lepidopterans are split into four suborders, but all the flower visitors occur in about sixteen families within the largest of these, Ditrysia. Ditrysia incorporates many superfamilies, mostly consisting of large moths and yet more micromoths, but two contain the evolutionarily more recent butterflies. The chapter first provides an overview of the feeding apparatus of moths and butterflies before discussing their sensory and behavioral capacities. It then considers the butterfly flower syndrome known as psychophily and the general moth syndrome termed phalaenophily, along with sphingophily involving hawkmoth flowers. It suggests that butterflies and moths are reasonably effective as flower pollinators, with some more specialist and probably more effective examples among the larger and partially endothermic sphingid species.Less
This chapter focuses on pollination by butterflies and moths, which belong to the order Lepidoptera. Lepidopterans are split into four suborders, but all the flower visitors occur in about sixteen families within the largest of these, Ditrysia. Ditrysia incorporates many superfamilies, mostly consisting of large moths and yet more micromoths, but two contain the evolutionarily more recent butterflies. The chapter first provides an overview of the feeding apparatus of moths and butterflies before discussing their sensory and behavioral capacities. It then considers the butterfly flower syndrome known as psychophily and the general moth syndrome termed phalaenophily, along with sphingophily involving hawkmoth flowers. It suggests that butterflies and moths are reasonably effective as flower pollinators, with some more specialist and probably more effective examples among the larger and partially endothermic sphingid species.
Pat Willmer
- Published in print:
- 2011
- Published Online:
- October 2017
- ISBN:
- 9780691128610
- eISBN:
- 9781400838943
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Princeton University Press
- DOI:
- 10.23943/princeton/9780691128610.003.0024
- Subject:
- Biology, Ecology
This chapter describes some of the kinds of cheating committed by flower visitors and what plants can do to avoid the costs of being cheated. While both plants and visitors have many ways of ...
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This chapter describes some of the kinds of cheating committed by flower visitors and what plants can do to avoid the costs of being cheated. While both plants and visitors have many ways of cheating, the diversity and deviousness of cheating by the plants seem to be substantially greater than the surreptitious stealing and ambushing that goes on in the animals. This is not surprising when considered in terms of the so-called life-dinner principle, and what each participant has at stake. The chapter begins with a discussion of how animals cheat by means of floral theft and thus get rewards without effecting pollination, including nectar theft, pollen theft, and florivory. It then examines three main options for defending plants against theft: physical barriers, chemical deterrents, and bribes. It also explains the overall effects of theft on flowers and concludes with an analysis of floral exploitation by hitchhikers and ambush predators.Less
This chapter describes some of the kinds of cheating committed by flower visitors and what plants can do to avoid the costs of being cheated. While both plants and visitors have many ways of cheating, the diversity and deviousness of cheating by the plants seem to be substantially greater than the surreptitious stealing and ambushing that goes on in the animals. This is not surprising when considered in terms of the so-called life-dinner principle, and what each participant has at stake. The chapter begins with a discussion of how animals cheat by means of floral theft and thus get rewards without effecting pollination, including nectar theft, pollen theft, and florivory. It then examines three main options for defending plants against theft: physical barriers, chemical deterrents, and bribes. It also explains the overall effects of theft on flowers and concludes with an analysis of floral exploitation by hitchhikers and ambush predators.
Pat Willmer
- Published in print:
- 2011
- Published Online:
- October 2017
- ISBN:
- 9780691128610
- eISBN:
- 9781400838943
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Princeton University Press
- DOI:
- 10.23943/princeton/9780691128610.003.0025
- Subject:
- Biology, Ecology
This chapter explores the effects of pollination on herbivory and vice versa. When herbivores and pollinators are both active on plants, there is much scope for differential selection on plant ...
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This chapter explores the effects of pollination on herbivory and vice versa. When herbivores and pollinators are both active on plants, there is much scope for differential selection on plant traits, and pollinator-mediated selection can sometimes be overwhelmed by opposing selective forces operating due to herbivory. This can result in increased genetic variation and a compromise phenotype and could potentially promote generalization in the flowers. The chapter examines the balance between these potentially conflicting selective influences on a flowering plant, from both florivores and more general herbivores, and some ways in which the conflicts can be resolved. It first considers the effects of florivory on pollinators and the effects of herbivory on flowering and pollination before discussing defenses against florivory and herbivory affecting flowers.Less
This chapter explores the effects of pollination on herbivory and vice versa. When herbivores and pollinators are both active on plants, there is much scope for differential selection on plant traits, and pollinator-mediated selection can sometimes be overwhelmed by opposing selective forces operating due to herbivory. This can result in increased genetic variation and a compromise phenotype and could potentially promote generalization in the flowers. The chapter examines the balance between these potentially conflicting selective influences on a flowering plant, from both florivores and more general herbivores, and some ways in which the conflicts can be resolved. It first considers the effects of florivory on pollinators and the effects of herbivory on flowering and pollination before discussing defenses against florivory and herbivory affecting flowers.
Pat Willmer
- Published in print:
- 2011
- Published Online:
- October 2017
- ISBN:
- 9780691128610
- eISBN:
- 9781400838943
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Princeton University Press
- DOI:
- 10.23943/princeton/9780691128610.003.0001
- Subject:
- Biology, Ecology
This chapter introduces some of the book’s central themes on animal pollination, beginning with a discussion of animals that visit flowers. At least 130,000 species of animals, and probably up to ...
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This chapter introduces some of the book’s central themes on animal pollination, beginning with a discussion of animals that visit flowers. At least 130,000 species of animals, and probably up to 300,000, are regular flower visitors and potential pollinators. At least 25,000 species of bees are included in this total, all of them obligate flower visitors and often the most important pollinators in a given habitat. There are currently about 260,000 species of angiosperms and it has been traditional to link particular kinds of flowers to particular groups of pollinators. The chapter proceeds by explaining why animals visit flowers, how flowers encourage animal visitors, and what makes a visitor a good pollinator. It also considers the costs, benefits, and conflicts in animal pollination before concluding with an enumeration of reasons why pollination is worth studying.Less
This chapter introduces some of the book’s central themes on animal pollination, beginning with a discussion of animals that visit flowers. At least 130,000 species of animals, and probably up to 300,000, are regular flower visitors and potential pollinators. At least 25,000 species of bees are included in this total, all of them obligate flower visitors and often the most important pollinators in a given habitat. There are currently about 260,000 species of angiosperms and it has been traditional to link particular kinds of flowers to particular groups of pollinators. The chapter proceeds by explaining why animals visit flowers, how flowers encourage animal visitors, and what makes a visitor a good pollinator. It also considers the costs, benefits, and conflicts in animal pollination before concluding with an enumeration of reasons why pollination is worth studying.
Beverley Glover
- Published in print:
- 2007
- Published Online:
- January 2008
- ISBN:
- 9780198565970
- eISBN:
- 9780191714009
- Item type:
- book
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198565970.001.0001
- Subject:
- Biology, Plant Sciences and Forestry
Flowers are the beautiful and complex reproductive structures of the angiosperms, one of the most diverse and successful groups of living organisms. The underlying thesis of this book is that to ...
More
Flowers are the beautiful and complex reproductive structures of the angiosperms, one of the most diverse and successful groups of living organisms. The underlying thesis of this book is that to understand fully plant development (and why flowers differ in shape, structure, and colour), it is necessary to understand why it is advantageous for them to look like they do. Conversely, in order to fully understand plant ecology, it is necessary to appreciate how floral structures have adapted and evolved. Uniquely, this book addresses flowers and flowering from both a molecular genetic perspective (considering flower induction, development, and self-incompatibility) and an ecological perspective (looking at the selective pressures placed on plants by pollinators, and the consequences for animal-plant co-evolution). This book first considers the evolution of flowers and the history of research into their development. This is followed by a detailed description of the processes which lead to flower production in model plants. The book then examines how flowers differ in shape, structure, and colour, and how these differences are generated. Finally, it assesses the role of these various aspects of floral biology in attracting pollinators and ensuring successful reproduction. In so doing, it provides the first truly integrated study of the topic — one that discusses both the how and why of flowering plant reproductive biology.Less
Flowers are the beautiful and complex reproductive structures of the angiosperms, one of the most diverse and successful groups of living organisms. The underlying thesis of this book is that to understand fully plant development (and why flowers differ in shape, structure, and colour), it is necessary to understand why it is advantageous for them to look like they do. Conversely, in order to fully understand plant ecology, it is necessary to appreciate how floral structures have adapted and evolved. Uniquely, this book addresses flowers and flowering from both a molecular genetic perspective (considering flower induction, development, and self-incompatibility) and an ecological perspective (looking at the selective pressures placed on plants by pollinators, and the consequences for animal-plant co-evolution). This book first considers the evolution of flowers and the history of research into their development. This is followed by a detailed description of the processes which lead to flower production in model plants. The book then examines how flowers differ in shape, structure, and colour, and how these differences are generated. Finally, it assesses the role of these various aspects of floral biology in attracting pollinators and ensuring successful reproduction. In so doing, it provides the first truly integrated study of the topic — one that discusses both the how and why of flowering plant reproductive biology.
