Search Results

Toxic Gas in the Cockpit: Pro Form and National Insurance Company v. The Garrett Corporation

Roger W. Shuy

in Fighting over Words: Language and Civil Law Cases

The fatal crash of a private plane led to a lawsuit brought by the insurer against the manufacturer of the aircraft's engine. Investigators found no evidence of engine malfunction, so the insurer ... More

The fatal crash of a private plane led to a lawsuit brought by the insurer against the manufacturer of the aircraft's engine. Investigators found no evidence of engine malfunction, so the insurer tried to place blame for the crash on the theory that the pilot was overcome by trimethylol propane phosphate (TMPP) gases leaking into the cockpit, causing him to have cognitive impairment such as disorientation, and to crash the plane, killing all aboard. No research exists concerning the effects of TMPP on humans, but because it is a GABA inhibitor that affects speech severely in diseases like Huntington's Disease, it seemed logical for the defense to analyze the recording of the pilot's speech from the time he departed until the time he crashed. The pilot's speech then was analyzed for syntax, word frequency, speech acts, pauses and pause fillers, pronunciation, and his use of the cooperative principle. No linguistic evidence of any type of aberration in the pilot's speech could be found in the recorded air-to-ground communications from the start of the flight to its fatal conclusion.Less

Feature geometry and predictions of locality

Ivan A. Sag

in Features: Perspectives on a Key Notion in Linguistics

This chapter argues that grammar is a set of local constraints. The Sign‐Based Construction Grammar architecture is feature‐based and model‐theoretic, utilizing constructs (mother–daughter ... More

This chapter argues that grammar is a set of local constraints. The Sign‐Based Construction Grammar architecture is feature‐based and model‐theoretic, utilizing constructs (mother–daughter configurations) as the structures over which grammatical dependencies are defined in localist terms. I examine a number of non‐local dependencies (agreement, case assignment, control, and filler–gap dependencies), providing localist analyses that embody precise hypotheses about the nature of non‐locality in language.Less

Irish

Ash Asudeh

in The Logic of Pronominal Resumption

This chapter applies the Resource Management Theory of Resumption to data from Irish. I first present the basic clausal structure of Irish that I am adopting, based on antecedent work that is adapted ... More

This chapter applies the Resource Management Theory of Resumption to data from Irish. I first present the basic clausal structure of Irish that I am adopting, based on antecedent work that is adapted to LFG using Toivonen’s theory of phrase structure. I next present an overview of the data to be analyzed, followed by detailed analyses of core Irish filler-gap and binder-resumptive dependencies. These analyses are then extended to deal with certain difficult cases known as 'mixed chains'. I conclude with a discussion of some further empirical predictions of the analysis of Irish, some directions for further research, and an extended comparison to a prominent Minimalist analysis of the Irish data.Less

Bio-nanocomposites: future high-value materials

Vikas Mittal

in Nanocomposites with Biodegradable Polymers: Synthesis, Properties, and Future Perspectives

Polymer nanocomposites are the materials with much improved properties than the constituent polymers. The nanoscale dispersion of the filler in the polymer matrix leads to the generation of ... More

Polymer nanocomposites are the materials with much improved properties than the constituent polymers. The nanoscale dispersion of the filler in the polymer matrix leads to the generation of tremendous amount of interfacial contacts between the organic and inorganic components. The polymer matrices generally used for the synthesis of polymer nanocomposites are non-biodegradable, which poses an environmental hazard. Thus, to generate more environmentally friendly materials, as well as to decrease the dependence from the fossil based resources, use of a number of biopolymers has been developed in the recent years. As the properties of such polymer are sometimes inferior to the commercial non-biodegradable polymers, thus, nanocomposites of such biopolymers have been developed to improve performance. Polymers which are finding increasing use in the composite technology to replace the non-biodegradable polymers include starch, cellulose, poly(lactic acid), poly(hydroxy alkanoates), pectin, chitosan, etc. The other polymers which though have fossil based sources but are still biodegradable incuse poly(caprolactone), poly(butylene succinate) etc. Significant improvement sin the mechanical, barrier and thermal properties have been reported in such bio-nanocomposites as compared to pure polymer. Biodegradation of the polymer after the incorporation of the clay has also been mostly observed to enhance, but on some occasions, it has also been observed to decrease, but still happening in principle. Thus, such bio-nanocomposites represent potentially high value materials of the future.Less

Bio-nanocomposites with non-cellulosic biofillers

Peter R. Chang, Jin Huang, and Ning Lin

in Nanocomposites with Biodegradable Polymers: Synthesis, Properties, and Future Perspectives

Among the components of bio-nanocomposites, the nanometer sized biofillers from biomass show unique advantages over traditional inorganic nanoparticles by virtue of their biodegradability and ... More

Among the components of bio-nanocomposites, the nanometer sized biofillers from biomass show unique advantages over traditional inorganic nanoparticles by virtue of their biodegradability and biocompatibility. Currently, biomass-based nanofillers include the rod-like whiskers of cellulose and chitin, the platelet-like nanocrystals of starch, the self-organized nanophase of supramolecular lignin complexes, and many artificial nanofillers derived from biomass. Biofillers that do not have a cellulose origin are defined as noncellulosic biofillers. Besides the inherent biodegradability and biocompatibility of biomass-based polymers, these nanometer sized noncellulosic biofillers have the following predominant advantages over inorganic nanoparticles: (1) Biofiller materials are abundant, renewable, and easily available; (2) Application of the biofiller can improve the bioeconomy; (3) The as-prepared biofillers are low density, and thus can not severely increase, and may even decrease, the specific gravity of nanocomposites; (4) Biofillers have high specific strength and modulus, i.e. high rigidity, that contribute a reinforcing function; (5) Biofillers have comparatively easy processability due to their nonabrasive nature, which allows high fill levels and hence a significant cost savings; (6) The relatively reactive surface of biofillers, covered with many hydroxyl groups, provides a great opportunity for chemical modification and grafting; (7) Recycling by combustion of noncellulosic biofiller-filled composites is easier in comparison with inorganic filler systems; (8) The self-organized arrangement of biofillers in nanocomposites may regulate electronic, optical, magnetic, and superconductive properties. As a result, the possibility of using noncellulosic biofillers in bio-nanocomposites has received considerable interest.Less

Blends

C. M. Roland

in Viscoelastic Behavior of Rubbery Materials

Most polymer blends are phase-segregated, and among thermodynamically miscible blends, only a few have components that are both rubbers. Since the equilibrium morphology of miscible blends is ... More

Most polymer blends are phase-segregated, and among thermodynamically miscible blends, only a few have components that are both rubbers. Since the equilibrium morphology of miscible blends is homogeneous down to the segmental level, they can exhibit unusual properties. The focus of this chapter is the phenomena seen in miscible rubbery blends that have no counterpart in neat materials. These properties include dynamic heterogeneity, anomalous concentration dependences, and the emergence of new relaxation peaks. There are a number of models for the segmental dynamics of blends, and these are reviewed. Selected aspects of phase-separated blends are discussed briefly at the chapter’s end.Less

Pivot and puzzling relativization in Indonesian

I Wayan Arka

in Modular Design of Grammar

This chapter presents a novel analysis of Indonesian relative clauses that makes use of the Pivot (PIV) notion as an abstract discourse-syntactic overlay function involving prominent GFs (SUBJ/OBJ) ... More

This chapter presents a novel analysis of Indonesian relative clauses that makes use of the Pivot (PIV) notion as an abstract discourse-syntactic overlay function involving prominent GFs (SUBJ/OBJ) and prominent DFs (FOC-C/TOP-C). The analysis resolves certain perennial relativization issues in Indonesian. The PIV-based analysis not only offers a solution to the Indonesian relativization puzzles presented but sheds light upon the fallibilities of previous analyses of Indonesian relativization processes, which assume gapping and pronominal copy strategies to be in complementary distribution. Instead, the PIV-based analysis offers a stronger account for these facts whereby the presence of overt SUBJ in the tight yang structure with nasal AV verbs renders the relativization of OBJ unacceptable, irrespective of which relativization strategy is used. This can be thought of as a ‘hard’ grammatical constraint of SUBJ relativization in Indonesian, which requires gapping.Less

Dental materials

Nicholas Longridge, Pete Clarke, Raheel Aftab, and Tariq Ali

Katharine Boursicot and David Sales (eds)

in Oxford Assess and Progress: Clinical Dentistry

Dental material science can be a daunting subject for most dentists, given its origins in the pure sciences of physics and chemistry. Combining this with human biology, and trying to see through ... More

Dental material science can be a daunting subject for most dentists, given its origins in the pure sciences of physics and chemistry. Combining this with human biology, and trying to see through the fog of material manu­facturers’ commercial claims, can make it seem like a truly mystifying subject. It is important that any student of material sciences maintains a critical eye and an evidence- based approach when it comes to material selection and use. Today we are lucky enough to work with the most advanced dental materials we have ever had. But simply having such materials at your dis­posal does not ensure success. Clinical procedural techniques are often the prime focus in restorative dentistry; however, to achieve optimal aesthetics, function, and longevity from restorations, a clear under­standing of material sciences is required. Ancient Roman engineers clearly understood this concept when con­structing Rome. They had to work within the limitations imposed by the materials they had at their disposal. However, the longevity and solidity of the impressive infrastructure we see today can be attributed to their expertise in exploiting the unique properties of the material resources they had available. The Romans perfected concrete production (based on volcanic ash and lime reacting with seawater to form tobermorite crystals) to yield a water- hardening material, so durable and resistant to cracks that modern- day concrete (based on Portland cement) is still considered weaker. It can be argued whether operator skill or advancements in dental ma­terials have resulted in improvements in restorative dentistry. However, few would disagree that it is the combination of good operator skill and appropriate use of dental materials that is the key for successful long-term dentistry. Key topics include: ● Adhesive dentistry concepts ● Understanding material physical properties ● Elemental make- up of materials ● Manufacturing processing of materials ● Biocompatibility ● Appreciation of setting reactions and working time ● Appreciation of material aesthetic and optical properties. Less

The coded bribery event of Federal Judge Alcee Hastings

Roger W. Shuy

in The Language of Bribery Cases

After being acquitted in a bribery trial, the US Congress believed (but couldn’t prove) that the evidence tapes in his case contained coded references to the bribery. I was asked to determine whether ... More

After being acquitted in a bribery trial, the US Congress believed (but couldn’t prove) that the evidence tapes in his case contained coded references to the bribery. I was asked to determine whether that their recorded language showed evidence of being coded. The speech event took the form of a progress report in which the speakers’ topics were consistent in their schemas about getting some reference letters supporting a mutual friend. However, the way they communicated their topics and responses, including excessive use of pause fillers, checks on confirmation of mutual understanding, missing follow-ups, and unusual anaphoric referencing, were key to the conclusion that the conversations indeed were conducted in a hastily constructed, partially disguised code. Hasting then was impeached and removed from the bench.Less

Left-corner parsing of minimalist grammars

Tim Hunter

in Minimalist Parsing

Much recent research in experimental psycholinguistics revolves around the resolution of long-distance dependencies, and the manner in which the human sentence processor “retrieves’” elements from ... More

Much recent research in experimental psycholinguistics revolves around the resolution of long-distance dependencies, and the manner in which the human sentence processor “retrieves’” elements from earlier in a sentence that must be related in some way to the material currently being processed. At present there is no obvious way for the issues raised by this research to be framed in terms of an MG parser. Stabler’s 2013 top-down MG parser does not involve any corresponding notion of “retrieval’”: it requires that a phrase’s position in the derivation tree be completely identified before the phrase can be scanned, which means that a filler cannot be scanned without committing to a particular location for its corresponding gap. This chapter attempts to develop a parsing algorithm that is inspired by Stabler, but which allows a sentence-initial filler to be scanned immediately while delaying the choice of corresponding gap position.Less

Introduction

Rui P. Chaves and Michael T. Putnam

in Unbounded Dependency Constructions: Theoretical and Experimental Perspectives

This chapter introduces the phenomena that will be discussed in the remainder of the book, discusses how these are modelled in a variety of frameworks, and how human beings process such filler-gap ... More

This chapter introduces the phenomena that will be discussed in the remainder of the book, discusses how these are modelled in a variety of frameworks, and how human beings process such filler-gap dependencies. The chapter concludes with five overarching questions, each of which is the topic of subsequent chapters: (1) What is the possible range of filler-gap dependency types? In particular, what patterns arise when there are multiple gaps?; (2) Is there a common constraint at work in most or all island phenomena?; (3) What are the advantages or disadvantages of movement-based versus non-movement-based approaches? (4) How can a theory of grammar account for the fact that some (but not other) island violations have gradient acceptability, are prone to frequency effects, and are sensitive to contextual information? (5) How can unbounded dependency constructions be learned by speakers? Does the evidence favor nativist approaches or domain-general experience-based approaches?Less

Soft Tissue Fillers for Facial Aesthetics

David R. Jordan and Stephen R. Klapper

in Surgery of the Eyelid, Lacrimal System, and Orbit

The search for an ideal soft tissue filler to correct facial folds and wrinkles has gone on for at least 100 years. Many products have been tried, including mineral oil, paraffin, and liquid ... More

The search for an ideal soft tissue filler to correct facial folds and wrinkles has gone on for at least 100 years. Many products have been tried, including mineral oil, paraffin, and liquid silicone, in an effort to improve soft tissue imperfections. Most of the early substances were abandoned due to a high incidence of complications, including chronic edema, granuloma formation, scarring, and ulceration. The ideal tissue filler should be biocompatible, noncarcinogenic, nonteratogenic, nonmigratory, and free of adverse reaction. The ideal filler should also be inexpensive and easy to use, require little preparation, and provide long-lasting, natural, and predictable results with minimal recovery time. Although no currently available injectable substance possesses all of these ideal attributes, many currently available products provide more-than-satisfactory results and have excellent safety profiles. The indications for injectable filler agents have largely evolved through a better understanding of facial aging, specifically soft tissue deflation typically noted between youth and middle age. The limitations of surgical procedures to correct soft tissue atrophy, as well as the possibility of delaying surgical procedures by early intervention with injectable fillers, have made these agents very valuable in improving the appearance of the aging face. With the continued improvement in products and techniques during recent years, the clinical results with fillers have become more predictable. As a result of this improvement, an increasing number of patients are seeking nonsurgical methods for correcting age-related changes to their facial skin and soft tissue. There are essentially two types of natural facial wrinkles (or rhytides): dynamic and static. They may occur separately or in combination. Dynamic wrinkles appear within the skin due to repeated contracture by the underlying muscles of facial expression. Static wrinkles are present regardless of facial dynamics and result from intrinsic changes in the components of the dermal ground substance and from extrinsic factors such as smoking, gravity, and sun exposure. The formation of both dynamic and static wrinkles is influenced by the quality of the natural collagen matrix within the dermal layers of the skin. For the most part, dynamic wrinkles are best treated with Botulinum toxin injections, particularly in the upper face. Less

Overview and Some Fundamental Information

Burak Erman and James E. Mark

in Structures and Properties of Rubberlike Networks

This chapter is a brief overview of the topics treated in the book. It is aimed, in particular, at providing some qualitative information on rubber elasticity theories and their relationships to ... More

This chapter is a brief overview of the topics treated in the book. It is aimed, in particular, at providing some qualitative information on rubber elasticity theories and their relationships to experimental studies, and at putting this material into context. The following chapter describes in detail the classical theories of rubber elasticity, that is, the phantom and affine network theories. The network chains in the phantom model are assumed not to experience the effects of the surrounding chains and entanglements, and thus to move as “phantoms.” Although this seems to be a very severe approximation, many experimental results are not in startling disagreement with theories based on this highly idealized assumption. These theories associate the total Helmholtz free energy of a deformed network with the sum of the free energies of the individual chains—an important assumption adopted throughout the book. They treat the single chain in its maximum simplicity, as a Gaussian chain, which is a type of “structureless” chain (where the only chemical constitution specified is the number of bonds in the network chain). In this respect, the classical theories focus on ideal networks and, in fact, are also referred to as “kinetic” theories because of their resemblance to ideal gas theories. Chain flexibility and mobility are the essential features of these models, according to which the network chains can experience all possible conformations or spatial arrangements subject to the network’s connectivity. One of the predictions of the classical theories is that the elastic modulus of the network is independent of strain. This results from the assumption that only the entropy at the chain level contributes to the Helmholtz free energy. Experimental evidence, on the other hand, indicates that the modulus decreases significantly with increasing tension or compression, implicating interchain interactions, such as entanglements of some type or other. This has led to the more modern theories of rubber elasticity, such as the constrained-junction or the slip-link theories, which go beyond the single-chain length scale and introduce additional entropy to the Helmholtz free energy at the subchain level. Less

Networks Having Multimodal Chain-Length Distributions

Burak Erman and James E. Mark

in Structures and Properties of Rubberlike Networks

As was mentioned in chapter 10, end-linking reactions can be used to make networks of known structures, including those having unusual chain-length distributions. One of the uses of networks having ... More

As was mentioned in chapter 10, end-linking reactions can be used to make networks of known structures, including those having unusual chain-length distributions. One of the uses of networks having a bimodal distribution is to clarify the dependence of ultimate properties on non-Gaussian effects arising from limited-chain extensibility, as was already pointed out. The following chapter provides more detail on this application, and others. In fact, the effect of network chain-length distribution, is one aspect of rubberlike elasticity that has not been studied very much until recently, because of two primary reasons. On the experimental side, the cross-linking techniques traditionally used to prepare the network structures required for rubberlike elasticity have been random, uncontrolled processes, as was mentioned in chapter 10. Examples are vulcanization (addition of sulfur), peroxide thermolysis (free-radical couplings), and high-energy radiation (free-radical and ionic reactions). All of these techniques are random in the sense that the number of cross-links thus introduced is not known directly, and two units close together in space are joined irrespective of their locations along the chain trajectories. The resulting network chain-length distribution is unimodal and probably very broad. On the theoretical side, it has turned out to be convenient, and even necessary, to assume a distribution of chain lengths that is not only unimodal, but monodisperse! There are a number of reasons for developing techniques to determine or, even better, control network chain-length distributions. One is to check the “weakest link” theory for elastomer rupture, which states that a typical elastomeric network consists of chains with a broad distribution of lengths, and that the shortest of these chains are the “culprits” in causing rupture. This is attributed to the very limited extensibility associated with their shortness that is thought to cause them to break at relatively small deformations and then act as rupture nuclei. Another reason is to determine whether control of chain-length distribution can be used to maximize the ultimate properties of an elastomer. As was described in chapter 10, a variety of model networks can be prepared using the new synthetic techniques that closely control the placements of crosslinks in a network structure. Less