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Gender Justice and Religion in Sub-Saharan Africa

Rogaia Mustafa Abusharaf

in Religion and the Global Politics of Human Rights

This chapter examines the impact of African cultural traditions on interpretations of human rights. It finds considerable tension between a Western-defined notion of universal human rights and the ... More

This chapter examines the impact of African cultural traditions on interpretations of human rights. It finds considerable tension between a Western-defined notion of universal human rights and the ways in which rights are understood within particular local contexts. It also observes how the intersection of globalization and local traditions is producing emergent and unexpected ways of thinking about rights. It suggests that religion is especially important not only because of its historic role in sub-Saharan Africa or the challenges it experienced during colonialism, but also because of the rapid growth in many areas of Islam and Pentecostal Christianity. Drawing on the work of Anthony Giddens, it is argued in this chapter that the changes taking place amid globalization represent a kind of “disembedding” of local traditions that yields new understandings of rights and how to secure them. The chapter focuses on controversies surrounding women's rights and female genital mutilation (FGM) illustrates how different African societies have responded to this dynamic.Less

Honorable Mutilation? Changing Responses to Female Genital Cutting in Sudan

Ellen Gruenbaum

in Anthropology and Public Health: Bridging Differences in Culture and Society

Female Genital Cutting practices (also known as FGM) are of several types—clitoridectomy, excision, infibulation, and reinfibulation—affecting women and girls in several African countries and other ... More

Female Genital Cutting practices (also known as FGM) are of several types—clitoridectomy, excision, infibulation, and reinfibulation—affecting women and girls in several African countries and other parts of the world. In Sudan, the most damaging of the forms of the practice has been common and has numerous harmful effects. The main reasons it continues are based on complex ideas about religion, morality, family honor, virginity, and marriageability of daughters. Long-term ethnographic research has demonstrated that it has begun to change as midwives and parents are influenced by religious rethinking, health education, and human rights approaches that are increasingly conveyed in creative ways utilizing outreach, the arts, and media. Harm reduction is expected to lead to greater abandonment.Less

Introduction

in Between Rites and Rights: Excision in Women's Experiential Texts and Human Contexts

During the United Nations decade for women (1975–1985), the practice of “female circumcision” was identified as female genital mutilation (FGM). Because the word “mutilation” was “thought to preempt ... More

During the United Nations decade for women (1975–1985), the practice of “female circumcision” was identified as female genital mutilation (FGM). Because the word “mutilation” was “thought to preempt moral judgment about such operations,” FGM was later replaced by female genital cutting. As of the 1970s, women's rites or rituals began to clash with human rights or “(w)human rights.” This book explores the liminal position of women between rites and rights in experiential texts by women writers from the 1960s to 2006, as well as texts from 1920s colonial Africa, sixteenth-century European medical discourse, and classical antiquity. It examines how excision contributes to the cultural construction of gender, particularly women's attempt at translating 'international feminism' across spaces, cultures, and belief systems. The book consists of three parts. Part I addresses African excised women's flight from cultural surveillance, Part II looks at their flight from religious and patriarchal surveillance, and Part III considers their concurrent physical flight through self-imposed exile or asylum in the West as well as their desire for empowerment on their return “home.”Less

Combining Clarity and Complexity A Layered Approach to Cross-Cultural Ethics

Elizabeth Kiss

in Naming Evil Judging Evil

This chapter addresses the issue of judgment in the face of cross-cultural complexity by examining two controversial cases—female genital mutilation and suicide bombings. It constructs a model of ... More

This chapter addresses the issue of judgment in the face of cross-cultural complexity by examining two controversial cases—female genital mutilation and suicide bombings. It constructs a model of good judgment that combines a commitment to core substantive norms with a capacity to make layered judgments that distinguish between moral assessments of (a) an action or practice; (b) the social contexts that shape, sustain, and give meaning to the practice; (c) the motivations and interests of those who engage in or defend it; (d) our own moral standing in relation to it; and (e) appropriate and effective responses to it. It is argued that a layered model of moral judgment avoids two extreme responses to situations where judgments must be made cross-culturally: clarity purchased at the price of cultural sensitivity and complexity that undermines the capacity to judge altogether.Less

Individual and Society: Claims and Responsibilities

Abdulaziz Sachedina

in Islam and the Challenge of Human Rights

This chapter takes up the question of group rights, which is one of the four areas of contemporary international controversy over internationally recognized human rights. The concept of human rights ... More

This chapter takes up the question of group rights, which is one of the four areas of contemporary international controversy over internationally recognized human rights. The concept of human rights challenges the ideal of community that sees individuals, rights, and other social options as defined by group membership. Secularism sees society as transcending community in the way the universal transcends the particular. Although community has imperceptible historical roots extending back to antiquity, it is not a rational construct. The essential feature of communities is that one's presence in them is not a matter of choice; that is, one does not decide at a particular time to join such a community, even hypothetically. Human relationships in such communities are constituted more along the lines of status than contract, status inevitably being a matter of kinship. Societies, in contrast, are rational constructs that transcend the particularistic dimension of communities constituted by revelation. Subordination of community to society has been regarded as an indispensable facet of democratic governance, which is based on inclusive and equal membership of all citizens regardless of their religious affiliation in their respective faith communities. This sociological distinction between a community and a society does not fully resonate with the Islamic paradigm of a religious‐political society with a cosmic dimension that can be contrasted and compared with the secular model on the one hand, and the traditional religious community on the other. The essential feature of Muslim community is that although it is based on religious affiliation derived from revelation, it functions as a comprehensive political society, presupposing the natural and legally constructed entitlements of those who live under its domination. Such a view is in direct conflict with the human rights norms that attach fundamentality to individual existence without any reference to extraneous conditions.Less

The Message Matters: Framing the Claim

Alison Brysk

in Speaking Rights to Power: Constructing Political Will

This chapter demonstrates the importance of framing human rights claims to deliver their message. In the case of human trafficking, frame alignment brings valuable but distorted attention. For the ... More

This chapter demonstrates the importance of framing human rights claims to deliver their message. In the case of human trafficking, frame alignment brings valuable but distorted attention. For the issue of FGM, an initial mismatch evolves to a more responsive frame for the campaign. This is contrasted with a failure of framing for the conflict in Colombia. Finally, we see the difference the genocide frame makes in securing recognition for suffering in Darfur but neglect of Congo.Less

Introduction

Karisa Cloward

in When Norms Collide: Local Responses to Activism against Female Genital Mutilation and Early Marriage

The introduction asks how individuals and communities respond to transnational activism that pits international norms against local norms. It highlights the theoretical significance of research on ... More

The introduction asks how individuals and communities respond to transnational activism that pits international norms against local norms. It highlights the theoretical significance of research on norm change among nonstate actors and the substantive significance of research on the practices of female genital mutilation (FGM) and early marriage. In addition, this chapter provides an overview of the argument and describes and justifies the research design (including issue selection, case selection, and research methods). It defines keyterms—norms, FGM, early marriage—and discusses conceptual and practical issues associated with these definitions. It further describes variation in the practice of FGM and early marriage worldwide, as well as the evolution of transnational activism against them.Less

FGM and Early Marriage in Kenya

Karisa Cloward

in When Norms Collide: Local Responses to Activism against Female Genital Mutilation and Early Marriage

This chapter outlines the practice of and campaign against FGM and early marriage in Kenya, among the Maasai and Samburu, and in the three case study communities. It discusses the scope of the two ... More

This chapter outlines the practice of and campaign against FGM and early marriage in Kenya, among the Maasai and Samburu, and in the three case study communities. It discusses the scope of the two practices and the nature of the local norms supporting them, as well as observed changes. It also considers the history and range of activism against the practices, and the activities of the Kenyan government. The chapter draws on quantitative data from Kenya’s Demographic and Health Surveys and from the author’s own original survey, as well as qualitative data from the Author’s interviews and from a range of primary and secondary documents.Less

Were Jewish Women Ever Circumcised?

Shaye J. D. Cohen

in Why Aren't Jewish Women Circumcised?: Gender and Covenant in Judaism

This chapter discusses female circumcision and analyses whether it was practiced in Jewish communities. Some cultures of the world practice female circumcision or female genital mutilation. The ... More

This chapter discusses female circumcision and analyses whether it was practiced in Jewish communities. Some cultures of the world practice female circumcision or female genital mutilation. The circumcision of women is first attested in Egypt in the Hellenistic period. The earliest evidence is a papyrus document from 163 bce, a petition written in Greek by an Egyptian monk at the temple of Serapis in Memphis. The document shows that the circumcision of women just before marriage was an established custom, at least in Memphis (middle Egypt), not later than the middle of the second century bce. However, female circumcision was unknown in the ancient Near East in general and unknown to ancient Israel in particular. There is no evidence anywhere that any Jewish community has ever practiced female circumcision. The Jewish philosopher Philo describes it saying that men need to be circumcised because they need to have both their lust checked and their pride diminished, and these desirable goals are achieved through circumcision.Less

Stateness, Democracy, and Respect: Senegal in Comparative Perspective1

Alfred Stepan

in Tolerance, Democracy, and Sufis in Senegal

This chapter analyzes the religious and cultural model of pluralism through the available comparative literatures on secularism, human rights, citizenship, and democratization. It incorporates the ... More

This chapter analyzes the religious and cultural model of pluralism through the available comparative literatures on secularism, human rights, citizenship, and democratization. It incorporates the model into modern democratization theory to challenge the assumption that complete separation of church and state is the most conducive arrangement for building democracy and the protection of human rights, as expressed by the governments of France and USA. In the case of Senegal, this proves to be false as the consistent displays of mutual respect and a spirit of tolerance between religions and the state have facilitated a policy of cooperation in cases of human rights abuses, such as the Campaign Against Female Genital Mutilation and anti-AIDS policies. The diminishing presence of the practice of genital mutilation and the low levels of AIDS in Senegal can be accredited to the coordinated measures undertaken by the religious leadership and the state.Less

Conclusion

Karisa Cloward

in When Norms Collide: Local Responses to Activism against Female Genital Mutilation and Early Marriage

This chapter concludes by reviewing the theory and the central findings from the research conducted in the three Kenyan case study communities. It also places the theory in a broader context by ... More

This chapter concludes by reviewing the theory and the central findings from the research conducted in the three Kenyan case study communities. It also places the theory in a broader context by applying it to FGM and early marriage cross-nationally and by applying it to two additional issues—girl-child education and dowry. It discusses policy implications for international donors and on-the-ground activists, and outlines theoretical implications for literatures on international norm promotion; the politics of culture, tradition, and modernity; and gender violence. Finally, the conclusion explores potential avenues for further research, including new cases, alternative methodological strategies, and theoretical extensions.Less

Cultural Considerations and the Price of Religious Liberty

Amos N. Guiora

in Freedom from Religion: Rights and National Security

This chapter examines cultural relativism within the context of religious liberty and religious extremism. It presents two examples of religious practices that are deemed harmful by larger society ... More

This chapter examines cultural relativism within the context of religious liberty and religious extremism. It presents two examples of religious practices that are deemed harmful by larger society but important and legitimate to particular groups: female genital mutilation and honor killings. It also considers the views of Justice Yitzhak Zamir of the Israel Supreme Court about ideological offenses and the consequences of the price of religious liberty for freedom of religion. Finally, it argues that the rule of law must be enforced in the face of religious extremist violence in order to protect civil democratic society.Less

A Theory of Local-Level Responses to International Norm Promotion

Karisa Cloward

in When Norms Collide: Local Responses to Activism against Female Genital Mutilation and Early Marriage

This chapter presents the central theoretical framework for understanding local-level norm change in response to a conflict between international and local norms. It disaggregates individual norm ... More

This chapter presents the central theoretical framework for understanding local-level norm change in response to a conflict between international and local norms. It disaggregates individual norm change into three discrete activities—attitude change, primary behavioral change, and secondary behavioral and rhetorical change—and establishes the conditions under which each of these changes is most likely to occur. It also identifies factors that influence the extent of exposure to the international normative message. The theory highlights systemic, local, and individual-level sources of variation in both exposure and norm change. It then considers the processes by which international norms diffuse across individuals and through communities, emphasizing both social and temporal dimensions of change.Less

Creating Local Awareness of International Norms

Karisa Cloward

in When Norms Collide: Local Responses to Activism against Female Genital Mutilation and Early Marriage

Chapters 4 through 7 present empirical support for the theory, drawing on both qualitative interview data and original survey data. Chapter 4 focuses on awareness of international norms. It shows ... More

Chapters 4 through 7 present empirical support for the theory, drawing on both qualitative interview data and original survey data. Chapter 4 focuses on awareness of international norms. It shows that there have been comparable levels of transnational activism against FGM and early marriage in the study communities. While the high salience of the international norm against FGM drives up activism by aid-dependent NGOs, the high salience of the local norm supporting the practice drives down activism by other community organizations. The low salience of both the international and local norms surrounding early marriage drives down activism by aid-dependent NGOs but creates space for activism by actors and organizations that are financially independent. However, the level of activism against both practices varies by community—awareness of the international norms against FGM and early marriage is most likely when communities, and individuals within communities, are accessible to NGOs and other activists.Less

Facilitating Local Primary Behavior Change

Karisa Cloward

in When Norms Collide: Local Responses to Activism against Female Genital Mutilation and Early Marriage

This chapter considers the barriers to individual behavior change and the diffusion of behavior change through communities. It shows that because of the relatively low salience of the local norm ... More

This chapter considers the barriers to individual behavior change and the diffusion of behavior change through communities. It shows that because of the relatively low salience of the local norm supporting early marriage, individual behavior change closely tracks attitude change. However, the high salience of the local norm supporting FGM means that individual behavior change lags significantly behind attitude change. Because of FGM’s high local salience, behavior change is most likely to occur where individuals are able to somehow mitigate the high barriers to defection—the chapter demonstrates that exposure to noncircumcising ethnic groups is associated with individual behavior change in communities that have experienced minimal norm change, and that elite opposition to FGM is associated with individual behavior change in communities that are at both early and advanced stages of transition.Less

Explaining Local Misrepresentation of Normative Commitments

Karisa Cloward

in When Norms Collide: Local Responses to Activism against Female Genital Mutilation and Early Marriage

This chapter focuses on rhetorical and secondary behavioral change. It finds that many individuals take steps to misrepresent or hide their true attitudes and behavior with respect to FGM and early ... More

This chapter focuses on rhetorical and secondary behavioral change. It finds that many individuals take steps to misrepresent or hide their true attitudes and behavior with respect to FGM and early marriage, and that they are motivated to do this by both reputational and material considerations. The survey experiment shows that individuals are willing to make false rhetorical commitments to international norms when they encounter an international audience, and the qualitative interviews show a propensity both for rhetorical misrepresentation to international activists and for actively hiding local norm compliance from local activists and authorities. However, these types of activities occur primarily in communities that have experienced significant exposure to the relevant international norms.Less

Fostering Local Attitude Change

Karisa Cloward

in When Norms Collide: Local Responses to Activism against Female Genital Mutilation and Early Marriage

This chapter addresses attitude change in response to transnational activism against FGM and early marriage. It finds that individual attitude change is most likely to occur when the international ... More

This chapter addresses attitude change in response to transnational activism against FGM and early marriage. It finds that individual attitude change is most likely to occur when the international normative message people receive is not only frequent but also of high quality, and that aid-dependent NGOs are less likely to provide such a high-quality message. While message quality is difficult to operationalize, the chapter is able to show that individuals with a strong grasp of the content of the international norms—that is, knowledge of the health and human rights consequences of FGM and early marriage—are more likely to express opposition to the two practices. It also shows that, for any given level of activism, individuals are less likely to change their attitudes about FGM than about early marriage, because of FGM’s higher local salience.Less

Quasi-experiments and Heavy-up Experiments in Social Marketing

W. Douglas Evans

in Social Marketing Research for Global Public Health: Methods and Technologies

Use of natural experiments and other quasi-experimentation techniques such as heavy-up studies and propensity score matching are growing outcome evaluation approaches in social marketing. Natural ... More

Use of natural experiments and other quasi-experimentation techniques such as heavy-up studies and propensity score matching are growing outcome evaluation approaches in social marketing. Natural experiments use naturally occurring variables outside the research study to create comparison groups. Heavy-up experiments manipulate the level of campaign exposure to create an experimental comparison. Other quasi-experimental methods, including statistical matching of participants and nonparticipants for comparison, may be useful in social marketing research. There are several considerations in choosing from the range of quasi-experimental designs explored in this chapter. The case study of the Saleema campaign for women and girls’ health in Sudan is an example of combined quasi-experimental and heavy-up methodologies conducted in a low-resource research setting.Less