Robert Rosenthal
- Published in print:
- 2009
- Published Online:
- September 2009
- ISBN:
- 9780195385540
- eISBN:
- 9780199869824
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195385540.003.0031
- Subject:
- Psychology, Social Psychology
The previous chapter discussed strategies which attempt to minimize experimenter expectancy effects. This chapter discusses a strategy which essentially attempts to maximize experimenter expectancy ...
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The previous chapter discussed strategies which attempt to minimize experimenter expectancy effects. This chapter discusses a strategy which essentially attempts to maximize experimenter expectancy effects by the employment of “expectancy control groups”.Less
The previous chapter discussed strategies which attempt to minimize experimenter expectancy effects. This chapter discusses a strategy which essentially attempts to maximize experimenter expectancy effects by the employment of “expectancy control groups”.
Robert Rosenthal
- Published in print:
- 2009
- Published Online:
- September 2009
- ISBN:
- 9780195385540
- eISBN:
- 9780199869824
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195385540.003.0023
- Subject:
- Psychology, Social Psychology
In Chapter 14, a number of experimenter characteristics were shown to be related to the operation of experimenter expectancy effects. The particular characteristics discussed could all be assessed ...
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In Chapter 14, a number of experimenter characteristics were shown to be related to the operation of experimenter expectancy effects. The particular characteristics discussed could all be assessed before the experimenter entered his laboratory. This chapter continues the discussion of experimenter variables, with emphasis on the experimenter's behavior in his interaction with the subject.Less
In Chapter 14, a number of experimenter characteristics were shown to be related to the operation of experimenter expectancy effects. The particular characteristics discussed could all be assessed before the experimenter entered his laboratory. This chapter continues the discussion of experimenter variables, with emphasis on the experimenter's behavior in his interaction with the subject.
Robert Rosenthal
- Published in print:
- 2009
- Published Online:
- September 2009
- ISBN:
- 9780195385540
- eISBN:
- 9780199869824
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195385540.003.0024
- Subject:
- Psychology, Social Psychology
This chapter addresses the question: How does the experimenter inform his subject what it is he expects the subject to do? Data from several studies including the leisurely analysis of films suggests ...
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This chapter addresses the question: How does the experimenter inform his subject what it is he expects the subject to do? Data from several studies including the leisurely analysis of films suggests that no gross errors are responsible. Experimenters do not tell their subjects in words or even in any obvious gestures what it is they expect from them. Errors of observation and of recording, although they do occur, occur so rarely as to be trivial to any explanation of experimenter expectancy effects.Less
This chapter addresses the question: How does the experimenter inform his subject what it is he expects the subject to do? Data from several studies including the leisurely analysis of films suggests that no gross errors are responsible. Experimenters do not tell their subjects in words or even in any obvious gestures what it is they expect from them. Errors of observation and of recording, although they do occur, occur so rarely as to be trivial to any explanation of experimenter expectancy effects.
Robert Rosenthal
- Published in print:
- 2009
- Published Online:
- September 2009
- ISBN:
- 9780195385540
- eISBN:
- 9780199869824
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195385540.003.0027
- Subject:
- Psychology, Social Psychology
Much of this book has been devoted to showing that an experimenter's expectancy may be an unintended determinant of the results of his research. This chapter addresses the question of what can be ...
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Much of this book has been devoted to showing that an experimenter's expectancy may be an unintended determinant of the results of his research. This chapter addresses the question of what can be done to control the effects of the experimenter's expectancy. A number of strategies are proposed. Some of these strategies are recognized as direct attempts to minimize expectancy effects. Somewhat paradoxically, some of these strategies are recognized as attempts to maximize these effects. The chapter discusses strategies that seek neither to minimize nor to maximize but rather to randomize and “calibrate” experimenter expectancies.Less
Much of this book has been devoted to showing that an experimenter's expectancy may be an unintended determinant of the results of his research. This chapter addresses the question of what can be done to control the effects of the experimenter's expectancy. A number of strategies are proposed. Some of these strategies are recognized as direct attempts to minimize expectancy effects. Somewhat paradoxically, some of these strategies are recognized as attempts to maximize these effects. The chapter discusses strategies that seek neither to minimize nor to maximize but rather to randomize and “calibrate” experimenter expectancies.
Robert Rosenthal
- Published in print:
- 2009
- Published Online:
- September 2009
- ISBN:
- 9780195385540
- eISBN:
- 9780199869824
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195385540.003.0017
- Subject:
- Psychology, Social Psychology
The evidence presented up to this point that the expectancy of the experimenter may in part determine the results of his research has been at least somewhat equivocal. Some of the evidence has been ...
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The evidence presented up to this point that the expectancy of the experimenter may in part determine the results of his research has been at least somewhat equivocal. Some of the evidence has been anecdotal. Some has required the untenable assumption that the expectancy of the experimenter, and not some correlated variable, had led to the effects observed. The most clear-cut evidence for the effects of the experimenter's expectancy, therefore, must come from experiments in which experimenters are given different expectancies. Of the studies examined, that by Stanton and Baker (1942) comes closest to meeting this requirement of the experimental induction of an expectancy. That study does require, however, the assumption that experimenters will expect the subjects to answer correctly the items being presented. The same assumption is required to interpret the case of Clever Hans as an experiment in expectancy effects. This chapter describes experiments that appear to be fairly straightforward tests of the hypothesis of the effects of the experimenter's expectancy on his research results.Less
The evidence presented up to this point that the expectancy of the experimenter may in part determine the results of his research has been at least somewhat equivocal. Some of the evidence has been anecdotal. Some has required the untenable assumption that the expectancy of the experimenter, and not some correlated variable, had led to the effects observed. The most clear-cut evidence for the effects of the experimenter's expectancy, therefore, must come from experiments in which experimenters are given different expectancies. Of the studies examined, that by Stanton and Baker (1942) comes closest to meeting this requirement of the experimental induction of an expectancy. That study does require, however, the assumption that experimenters will expect the subjects to answer correctly the items being presented. The same assumption is required to interpret the case of Clever Hans as an experiment in expectancy effects. This chapter describes experiments that appear to be fairly straightforward tests of the hypothesis of the effects of the experimenter's expectancy on his research results.
Robert Rosenthal
- Published in print:
- 2009
- Published Online:
- September 2009
- ISBN:
- 9780195385540
- eISBN:
- 9780199869824
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195385540.003.0020
- Subject:
- Psychology, Social Psychology
In the last few chapters the effects of the experimenter's expectancy on his subjects' responses was considered. This chapter reverses the direction of the predictions and considers the effects of ...
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In the last few chapters the effects of the experimenter's expectancy on his subjects' responses was considered. This chapter reverses the direction of the predictions and considers the effects of the subjects' responses on the experimenter's expectancy. Except in the most exploratory of experimental enterprises, the experimenter's expectancies are likely to be based upon some sort of observed data. These data need not have been formally acquired. They may derive from quite casual observations of behavior made by the experimenter himself or even by another observer.Less
In the last few chapters the effects of the experimenter's expectancy on his subjects' responses was considered. This chapter reverses the direction of the predictions and considers the effects of the subjects' responses on the experimenter's expectancy. Except in the most exploratory of experimental enterprises, the experimenter's expectancies are likely to be based upon some sort of observed data. These data need not have been formally acquired. They may derive from quite casual observations of behavior made by the experimenter himself or even by another observer.
Robert Rosenthal
- Published in print:
- 2009
- Published Online:
- September 2009
- ISBN:
- 9780195385540
- eISBN:
- 9780199869824
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195385540.003.0016
- Subject:
- Psychology, Social Psychology
This chapter discusses another “attribute” highly dependent on the specific experiment being conducted—the expectancy the experimenter has of how his subjects will respond. The particular expectation ...
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This chapter discusses another “attribute” highly dependent on the specific experiment being conducted—the expectancy the experimenter has of how his subjects will respond. The particular expectation a scientist has of how his experiment will turn out is variable, depending on the experiment being conducted, but the presence of some expectation is virtually a constant in science. The independent and dependent variables selected for study by the scientist are not chosen by means of a table of random numbers. They are selected because the scientist expects a certain relationship to appear between them. Even in those less carefully planned examinations of relationships called “fishing expeditions” or, more formally, “exploratory analyses” the expectation of the scientist is reflected in the selection of the entire set of variables chosen for examination. Exploratory analyses of data, like real fishing ventures, do not take place in randomly selected pools.Less
This chapter discusses another “attribute” highly dependent on the specific experiment being conducted—the expectancy the experimenter has of how his subjects will respond. The particular expectation a scientist has of how his experiment will turn out is variable, depending on the experiment being conducted, but the presence of some expectation is virtually a constant in science. The independent and dependent variables selected for study by the scientist are not chosen by means of a table of random numbers. They are selected because the scientist expects a certain relationship to appear between them. Even in those less carefully planned examinations of relationships called “fishing expeditions” or, more formally, “exploratory analyses” the expectation of the scientist is reflected in the selection of the entire set of variables chosen for examination. Exploratory analyses of data, like real fishing ventures, do not take place in randomly selected pools.
Robert Rosenthal
- Published in print:
- 2009
- Published Online:
- September 2009
- ISBN:
- 9780195385540
- eISBN:
- 9780199869824
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195385540.003.0029
- Subject:
- Psychology, Social Psychology
In the last two chapters suggestions were made which were designed to help control experimenter expectancy effects in specific experiments. Drawing upon some of the suggestions made earlier, this ...
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In the last two chapters suggestions were made which were designed to help control experimenter expectancy effects in specific experiments. Drawing upon some of the suggestions made earlier, this chapter considers on a possibly more general basis the selection and training of experimenters as an aid to the control of experimenter expectancy effects. If there were certain kinds of data collectors who never influenced their subjects unintentionally, we could make a point of having only these experimenters collect our data. If the amount and type of an experimenter's training were significant predictors of his expectancy effects, we could establish training programs for data collectors such that its graduates' data would be unaffected by their expectancies or hypotheses.Less
In the last two chapters suggestions were made which were designed to help control experimenter expectancy effects in specific experiments. Drawing upon some of the suggestions made earlier, this chapter considers on a possibly more general basis the selection and training of experimenters as an aid to the control of experimenter expectancy effects. If there were certain kinds of data collectors who never influenced their subjects unintentionally, we could make a point of having only these experimenters collect our data. If the amount and type of an experimenter's training were significant predictors of his expectancy effects, we could establish training programs for data collectors such that its graduates' data would be unaffected by their expectancies or hypotheses.
Robert Rosenthal
- Published in print:
- 2009
- Published Online:
- September 2009
- ISBN:
- 9780195385540
- eISBN:
- 9780199869824
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195385540.003.0019
- Subject:
- Psychology, Social Psychology
This chapter discusses various subject sets as they complicate the effects of the experimenter's expectancy. The experiments described have served in part to extend the generality of the effects of ...
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This chapter discusses various subject sets as they complicate the effects of the experimenter's expectancy. The experiments described have served in part to extend the generality of the effects of the experimenter's expectancy. More particularly they have shown the combined effects of the experimenter's expectancy and the subject's set or his perception of the demand characteristics of the experimental situation. The examination of such joint effects is only just now being mapped out for inquiry. But from what data there are—both quantitative and qualitative—the conclusion seems warranted that what is in the head of the subject and in the head of the experimenter can unintentionally affect the results of psychological research.Less
This chapter discusses various subject sets as they complicate the effects of the experimenter's expectancy. The experiments described have served in part to extend the generality of the effects of the experimenter's expectancy. More particularly they have shown the combined effects of the experimenter's expectancy and the subject's set or his perception of the demand characteristics of the experimental situation. The examination of such joint effects is only just now being mapped out for inquiry. But from what data there are—both quantitative and qualitative—the conclusion seems warranted that what is in the head of the subject and in the head of the experimenter can unintentionally affect the results of psychological research.
Robert Rosenthal
- Published in print:
- 2009
- Published Online:
- September 2009
- ISBN:
- 9780195385540
- eISBN:
- 9780199869824
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195385540.003.0030
- Subject:
- Psychology, Social Psychology
This chapter begins with a discussion of the blind contact strategy for psychological research. It then proposes that if we could eliminate experimenter-subject contact altogether it would seem that ...
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This chapter begins with a discussion of the blind contact strategy for psychological research. It then proposes that if we could eliminate experimenter-subject contact altogether it would seem that we would then also eliminate the operation of experimenter expectancy effects.Less
This chapter begins with a discussion of the blind contact strategy for psychological research. It then proposes that if we could eliminate experimenter-subject contact altogether it would seem that we would then also eliminate the operation of experimenter expectancy effects.
Robert Rosenthal
- Published in print:
- 2009
- Published Online:
- September 2009
- ISBN:
- 9780195385540
- eISBN:
- 9780199869824
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195385540.003.0028
- Subject:
- Psychology, Social Psychology
In Chapter 19, some techniques for the control of experimenter expectancy effects were suggested which depended on the determination of experimenter behavior, expectancy, and other attributes before ...
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In Chapter 19, some techniques for the control of experimenter expectancy effects were suggested which depended on the determination of experimenter behavior, expectancy, and other attributes before the data collection process began. This chapter considers some related controls which, however, depend on the determination of experimenter behavior, expectancy, and other attributes during and after the data collection process.Less
In Chapter 19, some techniques for the control of experimenter expectancy effects were suggested which depended on the determination of experimenter behavior, expectancy, and other attributes before the data collection process began. This chapter considers some related controls which, however, depend on the determination of experimenter behavior, expectancy, and other attributes during and after the data collection process.
Robert Rosenthal
- Published in print:
- 2009
- Published Online:
- September 2009
- ISBN:
- 9780195385540
- eISBN:
- 9780199869824
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195385540.003.0018
- Subject:
- Psychology, Social Psychology
In Chapter 9 a question was raised as to the generality of the effects of the experimenter's expectancy. This chapter describes experiments designed to extend the generality of these effects. It was ...
More
In Chapter 9 a question was raised as to the generality of the effects of the experimenter's expectancy. This chapter describes experiments designed to extend the generality of these effects. It was felt that a major gain in the generality of the phenomenon depended on the demonstration that expectancy effects might operate with different species of subjects. Accordingly, the subjects of these experiments were rats rather than humans.Less
In Chapter 9 a question was raised as to the generality of the effects of the experimenter's expectancy. This chapter describes experiments designed to extend the generality of these effects. It was felt that a major gain in the generality of the phenomenon depended on the demonstration that expectancy effects might operate with different species of subjects. Accordingly, the subjects of these experiments were rats rather than humans.
Rhona S. Weinstein
- Published in print:
- 2008
- Published Online:
- April 2010
- ISBN:
- 9780195327892
- eISBN:
- 9780199301478
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195327892.003.0005
- Subject:
- Psychology, Clinical Child Psychology / School Psychology
Despite a large literature about educational expectancy effects as well as current U.S. policy focused on raising expectations in schooling, intervention research has been relatively rare. Drawing ...
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Despite a large literature about educational expectancy effects as well as current U.S. policy focused on raising expectations in schooling, intervention research has been relatively rare. Drawing upon an ecological perspective, this chapter describes a setting-level theory about the promotion of high expectations for diverse populations of students. Four exemplars of expectancy interventions (de-tracking a high school, turning around a low-performing elementary school, creating a high-expectation elementary school, and developing an early-college secondary school for the first in the family to attend university) illustrate the levers of change. Expectancy change rests upon the capacity to see youth in a more favorable light, as capable of learning despite difference, and upon increased individual and organizational capacity to challenge and support the talent development of a diversity of students.Less
Despite a large literature about educational expectancy effects as well as current U.S. policy focused on raising expectations in schooling, intervention research has been relatively rare. Drawing upon an ecological perspective, this chapter describes a setting-level theory about the promotion of high expectations for diverse populations of students. Four exemplars of expectancy interventions (de-tracking a high school, turning around a low-performing elementary school, creating a high-expectation elementary school, and developing an early-college secondary school for the first in the family to attend university) illustrate the levers of change. Expectancy change rests upon the capacity to see youth in a more favorable light, as capable of learning despite difference, and upon increased individual and organizational capacity to challenge and support the talent development of a diversity of students.
Robert Rosenthal
- Published in print:
- 2009
- Published Online:
- September 2009
- ISBN:
- 9780195385540
- eISBN:
- 9780199869824
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195385540.003.0025
- Subject:
- Psychology, Social Psychology
This chapter begins with a discussion of the generality of experimenter effects. It presents more formal definitions of certain operating characteristics of the experimenter. It then considers the ...
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This chapter begins with a discussion of the generality of experimenter effects. It presents more formal definitions of certain operating characteristics of the experimenter. It then considers the “real” world of research, with experimenters conducting experiments that, because of differences in subject sampling, instrumentation, and procedure, cannot reasonably be compared directly to any other experiments.Less
This chapter begins with a discussion of the generality of experimenter effects. It presents more formal definitions of certain operating characteristics of the experimenter. It then considers the “real” world of research, with experimenters conducting experiments that, because of differences in subject sampling, instrumentation, and procedure, cannot reasonably be compared directly to any other experiments.
Robert A. Scott
- Published in print:
- 2010
- Published Online:
- May 2012
- ISBN:
- 9780520262751
- eISBN:
- 9780520946200
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- University of California Press
- DOI:
- 10.1525/california/9780520262751.003.0007
- Subject:
- Religion, World Religions
In matters of health, nothing is more fundamental to the practice of appealing to saints than hope and belief: the hope that cures for illness are possible and the abiding conviction that saints can ...
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In matters of health, nothing is more fundamental to the practice of appealing to saints than hope and belief: the hope that cures for illness are possible and the abiding conviction that saints can facilitate them. Among the faithful, it is belief that kindles the hope that they may become well. Belief also figures prominently in the practice of modern medicine, powerfully influencing how people respond to treatment. Various terms are used to refer to the role of belief in healing today. The most familiar ones are placebo and the placebo effect; others include expectancy effects, the meaning response, the belief effect, nonspecific therapeutic effects, and the mind-body connection. This chapter measures patients' responses to sham treatments; the second studies the effects of health-care providers' beliefs on the patients to whom sham treatments are given.Less
In matters of health, nothing is more fundamental to the practice of appealing to saints than hope and belief: the hope that cures for illness are possible and the abiding conviction that saints can facilitate them. Among the faithful, it is belief that kindles the hope that they may become well. Belief also figures prominently in the practice of modern medicine, powerfully influencing how people respond to treatment. Various terms are used to refer to the role of belief in healing today. The most familiar ones are placebo and the placebo effect; others include expectancy effects, the meaning response, the belief effect, nonspecific therapeutic effects, and the mind-body connection. This chapter measures patients' responses to sham treatments; the second studies the effects of health-care providers' beliefs on the patients to whom sham treatments are given.
Michael E. Staub
- Published in print:
- 2018
- Published Online:
- September 2019
- ISBN:
- 9781469643595
- eISBN:
- 9781469643618
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- University of North Carolina Press
- DOI:
- 10.5149/northcarolina/9781469643595.003.0002
- Subject:
- History, African-American History
This chapter takes up the pressure under which preschool enrichment programs like Project Head Start—promoted by President Johnson as signature components of his War on Poverty—found themselves, in ...
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This chapter takes up the pressure under which preschool enrichment programs like Project Head Start—promoted by President Johnson as signature components of his War on Poverty—found themselves, in needing to demonstrate that they were worthy of investment, rather soon after they had been launched. A most significant turning point came in 1966 with the Equality of Educational Opportunity report (better known as the Coleman Report). Expected to demonstrate that students in segregated schools lagged in IQ scores, the Coleman Report instead had the effect of calling into question the conviction, so essential for advocates of desegregation and early enrichment alike, that children’s brains were malleable and that changing their environments improved their IQs. At the same time, a host of seemingly unrelated psychological theories – e.g. “locus of control”, learned helplessness, the interpersonal expectancy effect (better known as the Pygmalion effect) – got swept into controversies over the potential effectiveness of compensatory education.Less
This chapter takes up the pressure under which preschool enrichment programs like Project Head Start—promoted by President Johnson as signature components of his War on Poverty—found themselves, in needing to demonstrate that they were worthy of investment, rather soon after they had been launched. A most significant turning point came in 1966 with the Equality of Educational Opportunity report (better known as the Coleman Report). Expected to demonstrate that students in segregated schools lagged in IQ scores, the Coleman Report instead had the effect of calling into question the conviction, so essential for advocates of desegregation and early enrichment alike, that children’s brains were malleable and that changing their environments improved their IQs. At the same time, a host of seemingly unrelated psychological theories – e.g. “locus of control”, learned helplessness, the interpersonal expectancy effect (better known as the Pygmalion effect) – got swept into controversies over the potential effectiveness of compensatory education.