J. S. Malik Peiris and Yi Guan
- Published in print:
- 2005
- Published Online:
- September 2007
- ISBN:
- 9780198568193
- eISBN:
- 9780191718175
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198568193.003.0006
- Subject:
- Biology, Disease Ecology / Epidemiology
An unusual atypical pneumonia emerged in the autumn of 2002 and winter of 2003, which was recognized as a new disease and designated Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS). A novel coronavirus ...
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An unusual atypical pneumonia emerged in the autumn of 2002 and winter of 2003, which was recognized as a new disease and designated Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS). A novel coronavirus (SARS CoV) was identified as the cause of SARS. This chapter describes the initial recognition of the new disease and the concerted international effort that allowed the rapid identification of SARS CoV as its aetiological agent. The tissue distribution of virus in infected patients is described with reference to the implications for onward human-to-human transmission. In contrast to other respiratory viral infections, the viral load of SARS CoV in the upper respiratory tract and faeces is low in the first few days of illness, and peaks around day 10 of illness. The chapter concludes with a discussion of the implications of this pattern of viral excretion.Less
An unusual atypical pneumonia emerged in the autumn of 2002 and winter of 2003, which was recognized as a new disease and designated Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS). A novel coronavirus (SARS CoV) was identified as the cause of SARS. This chapter describes the initial recognition of the new disease and the concerted international effort that allowed the rapid identification of SARS CoV as its aetiological agent. The tissue distribution of virus in infected patients is described with reference to the implications for onward human-to-human transmission. In contrast to other respiratory viral infections, the viral load of SARS CoV in the upper respiratory tract and faeces is low in the first few days of illness, and peaks around day 10 of illness. The chapter concludes with a discussion of the implications of this pattern of viral excretion.
A. Schmidt-Rhaesa
- Published in print:
- 2007
- Published Online:
- September 2007
- ISBN:
- 9780198566687
- eISBN:
- 9780191718007
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198566687.003.0009
- Subject:
- Biology, Evolutionary Biology / Genetics
Excretory systems remove excretions from the body and serve as organs of osmoregulation. Active transport and ultrafiltration are the two basic principles of excretion. The structure of filtration ...
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Excretory systems remove excretions from the body and serve as organs of osmoregulation. Active transport and ultrafiltration are the two basic principles of excretion. The structure of filtration organs corresponds with the type of body cavity being present. Both types of organs — protonephridia and metanephridial systems — filter body fluids, either into a canal system (protonephridia) or into the coelom (metanephridial systems), and remove the excretes in a canal system, where modification takes place. Protonephridia and metanephridial systems differ in the location and structure of these two components. There are different models of excretory organ evolution, but the model considered most likely in this chapter is one which describes unique evolution and subsequent differentiation of protonephridia, and multiple evolution of metanephridial systems.Less
Excretory systems remove excretions from the body and serve as organs of osmoregulation. Active transport and ultrafiltration are the two basic principles of excretion. The structure of filtration organs corresponds with the type of body cavity being present. Both types of organs — protonephridia and metanephridial systems — filter body fluids, either into a canal system (protonephridia) or into the coelom (metanephridial systems), and remove the excretes in a canal system, where modification takes place. Protonephridia and metanephridial systems differ in the location and structure of these two components. There are different models of excretory organ evolution, but the model considered most likely in this chapter is one which describes unique evolution and subsequent differentiation of protonephridia, and multiple evolution of metanephridial systems.
BONNIE S. McDOUGALL
- Published in print:
- 2002
- Published Online:
- October 2011
- ISBN:
- 9780199256792
- eISBN:
- 9780191698378
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199256792.003.0015
- Subject:
- Economics and Finance, South and East Asia
This chapter explores Lu Xun and Xu Guangping's own bodies and bodily activities and functions. When they first started to write to each other, the two rarely discussed bodies, bodily functions or ...
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This chapter explores Lu Xun and Xu Guangping's own bodies and bodily activities and functions. When they first started to write to each other, the two rarely discussed bodies, bodily functions or activities, or personal hygiene, apart from his drinking and smoking. In 1926, by contrast, they exchanged much detailed information about a wide range of bodily activities, while in 1929 they confined their remarks mainly to getting adequate rest and good diets. Xu Guangping tended to be more frank about her body than he is about his, but her references were more likely deleted than his were. His smoking was not a personal matter, but her lectures about his habit and his response were too personal for publication. Remarks about their respective drinking habits were retained except where it may indicate serious alcoholism on his part, and his claims to sobriety were invariably retained or added.Less
This chapter explores Lu Xun and Xu Guangping's own bodies and bodily activities and functions. When they first started to write to each other, the two rarely discussed bodies, bodily functions or activities, or personal hygiene, apart from his drinking and smoking. In 1926, by contrast, they exchanged much detailed information about a wide range of bodily activities, while in 1929 they confined their remarks mainly to getting adequate rest and good diets. Xu Guangping tended to be more frank about her body than he is about his, but her references were more likely deleted than his were. His smoking was not a personal matter, but her lectures about his habit and his response were too personal for publication. Remarks about their respective drinking habits were retained except where it may indicate serious alcoholism on his part, and his claims to sobriety were invariably retained or added.
Stanley S. Hillman, Philip C. Withers, Robert C. Drewes, and Stanley D. Hillyard
- Published in print:
- 2008
- Published Online:
- April 2010
- ISBN:
- 9780198570325
- eISBN:
- 9780191728259
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198570325.003.0003
- Subject:
- Biology, Animal Biology, Aquatic Biology
This chapter delineates the specialized physiological characteristics of amphibians, including anatomy and physiology of physiological processes of amphibians that have served as unique and powerful ...
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This chapter delineates the specialized physiological characteristics of amphibians, including anatomy and physiology of physiological processes of amphibians that have served as unique and powerful model systems for other vertebrates. It first describes how the skin and urinary bladder have been models for water and solute transport, in both water and air, followed by an analysis of the physiological mechanisms involved in the remarkable capacity of amphibians to withstand dehydration. The biology and physiology of thermoregulation is then explored, followed by an analysis of the range and limitations of temperature to activity metabolism, both aerobic and anaerobic. The diverse range of nitrogen excretory products of amphibians, along with their varied kidney physiology, is then described. Finally, the benefits of developmental plasticity are explored as a model.Less
This chapter delineates the specialized physiological characteristics of amphibians, including anatomy and physiology of physiological processes of amphibians that have served as unique and powerful model systems for other vertebrates. It first describes how the skin and urinary bladder have been models for water and solute transport, in both water and air, followed by an analysis of the physiological mechanisms involved in the remarkable capacity of amphibians to withstand dehydration. The biology and physiology of thermoregulation is then explored, followed by an analysis of the range and limitations of temperature to activity metabolism, both aerobic and anaerobic. The diverse range of nitrogen excretory products of amphibians, along with their varied kidney physiology, is then described. Finally, the benefits of developmental plasticity are explored as a model.
Pramod R. Saxena
- Published in print:
- 1990
- Published Online:
- March 2012
- ISBN:
- 9780192618108
- eISBN:
- 9780191724305
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780192618108.003.0014
- Subject:
- Neuroscience, Disorders of the Nervous System
Migraine is a vascular headache but its pathophysiology is complex and multifactorial. Of the many pathophysiological factors that are implicated in migraine, changes in the metabolism of ...
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Migraine is a vascular headache but its pathophysiology is complex and multifactorial. Of the many pathophysiological factors that are implicated in migraine, changes in the metabolism of 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT) are the best documented. During the headache phase of migraine, urinary excretion of 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid increases, whereas the blood 5-HT concentration decreases. Furthermore, in migraine patients reserpine precipitates a headache that can be alleviated by 5-HT. In the light of recent developments in the characterization and classification of the receptors for 5-HT, this article aims to discuss the relationship between the neural and cephalovascular 5-HT receptors and the antimigraine action of drugs.Less
Migraine is a vascular headache but its pathophysiology is complex and multifactorial. Of the many pathophysiological factors that are implicated in migraine, changes in the metabolism of 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT) are the best documented. During the headache phase of migraine, urinary excretion of 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid increases, whereas the blood 5-HT concentration decreases. Furthermore, in migraine patients reserpine precipitates a headache that can be alleviated by 5-HT. In the light of recent developments in the characterization and classification of the receptors for 5-HT, this article aims to discuss the relationship between the neural and cephalovascular 5-HT receptors and the antimigraine action of drugs.
Dietland Müller-Schwarze
- Published in print:
- 2011
- Published Online:
- August 2016
- ISBN:
- 9780801450105
- eISBN:
- 9780801460869
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Cornell University Press
- DOI:
- 10.7591/cornell/9780801450105.003.0002
- Subject:
- Biology, Animal Behavior / Behavioral Ecology
This chapter provides an overview of the beaver's form, weight, and special adaptations. An adult North American beaver has an average body weight of 40–50 pounds (about 18–23 kilograms). The body ...
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This chapter provides an overview of the beaver's form, weight, and special adaptations. An adult North American beaver has an average body weight of 40–50 pounds (about 18–23 kilograms). The body including the tail measures about 48 inches in length. Most distinctive for the beaver, the tail is flat and scaly and performs a variety of functions. For example, the tail serves in heat exchange through a countercurrent arrangement of blood vessels, allowing the beaver to reduce the 25 percent heat loss in the summer to 2 percent in the winter. This chapter also discusses the beaver's other organs including the nostrils, ears, eyes, brain, skull, teeth, feet, fur, and digestive tract. It also considers the beaver's excretion, reproductive organs, and senses.Less
This chapter provides an overview of the beaver's form, weight, and special adaptations. An adult North American beaver has an average body weight of 40–50 pounds (about 18–23 kilograms). The body including the tail measures about 48 inches in length. Most distinctive for the beaver, the tail is flat and scaly and performs a variety of functions. For example, the tail serves in heat exchange through a countercurrent arrangement of blood vessels, allowing the beaver to reduce the 25 percent heat loss in the summer to 2 percent in the winter. This chapter also discusses the beaver's other organs including the nostrils, ears, eyes, brain, skull, teeth, feet, fur, and digestive tract. It also considers the beaver's excretion, reproductive organs, and senses.
Judith S. Weis
- Published in print:
- 2012
- Published Online:
- August 2016
- ISBN:
- 9780801450501
- eISBN:
- 9780801466045
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Cornell University Press
- DOI:
- 10.7591/cornell/9780801450501.003.0003
- Subject:
- Biology, Animal Biology
This chapter looks at basic crab anatomy. It examines the biological aspects common to many crabs, such as their digestive processes, respiration, metabolic rates, biological rhythms, excretion, ...
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This chapter looks at basic crab anatomy. It examines the biological aspects common to many crabs, such as their digestive processes, respiration, metabolic rates, biological rhythms, excretion, osmoregulation, their five senses, their nervous system, and even their pigmentation. A crab’s major anatomical features are the boundary between the head and thorax, as well as the segments of the thorax and the attachment of the legs to the thorax. Furthermore, the chapter notes that while many aspects of crab anatomy and physiology are similar to those of other animals, some may come as a surprise, such as their blue blood, the taste buds on their toes, or even the kidneys in their head.Less
This chapter looks at basic crab anatomy. It examines the biological aspects common to many crabs, such as their digestive processes, respiration, metabolic rates, biological rhythms, excretion, osmoregulation, their five senses, their nervous system, and even their pigmentation. A crab’s major anatomical features are the boundary between the head and thorax, as well as the segments of the thorax and the attachment of the legs to the thorax. Furthermore, the chapter notes that while many aspects of crab anatomy and physiology are similar to those of other animals, some may come as a surprise, such as their blue blood, the taste buds on their toes, or even the kidneys in their head.
John C. Moore and Peter C. De Ruiter
- Published in print:
- 2012
- Published Online:
- December 2013
- ISBN:
- 9780198566182
- eISBN:
- 9780191774683
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198566182.003.0004
- Subject:
- Biology, Ecology
This chapter makes use of the same connectedness description as the previous chapter – the Central Plains Experimental Range (CPER) soil food web – as a starting point for constructing an ‘energy ...
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This chapter makes use of the same connectedness description as the previous chapter – the Central Plains Experimental Range (CPER) soil food web – as a starting point for constructing an ‘energy flux’ description. This is for the purpose of creating an energy flux food web description. If the connectedness food web description is a simple depiction of who-eats-who within the community, the energy flux food web, in turn, provides an accounting ledger of the distribution and transfer of matter and energy within the community. In addition, the description and model are also applicable in estimating the rates of mineralization for the individual functional groups and the web as a whole, and are capable of arriving at estimates of inorganic carbon respiration and nitrogen excretion, for example. The chapter, then, uses the CPER and other soil food webs to illustrate how these descriptions are constructed, and to explore patterns in the distribution of biomass and flow of matter.Less
This chapter makes use of the same connectedness description as the previous chapter – the Central Plains Experimental Range (CPER) soil food web – as a starting point for constructing an ‘energy flux’ description. This is for the purpose of creating an energy flux food web description. If the connectedness food web description is a simple depiction of who-eats-who within the community, the energy flux food web, in turn, provides an accounting ledger of the distribution and transfer of matter and energy within the community. In addition, the description and model are also applicable in estimating the rates of mineralization for the individual functional groups and the web as a whole, and are capable of arriving at estimates of inorganic carbon respiration and nitrogen excretion, for example. The chapter, then, uses the CPER and other soil food webs to illustrate how these descriptions are constructed, and to explore patterns in the distribution of biomass and flow of matter.
F. Brian Eddy and Richard D. Handy
- Published in print:
- 2012
- Published Online:
- December 2013
- ISBN:
- 9780199540945
- eISBN:
- 9780191774584
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199540945.003.0003
- Subject:
- Biology, Animal Biology, Ecology
This chapter discusses challenging habitats, examples of the populations of fish present, and the physiological adaptations shown by the fish. The topics selected are life in hypoxic environments, ...
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This chapter discusses challenging habitats, examples of the populations of fish present, and the physiological adaptations shown by the fish. The topics selected are life in hypoxic environments, air-breathing strategies, life in the coldest and warmest environments, stress, life in acid and alkaline environments and nitrogenous excretion, extremes of salinity, and the depths. Fish show an amazing range of adaptations to extreme environments, such as modifications of the respiratory and circulatory systems for air breathing; in waters of sub-zero temperatures the body is protected from freezing by seasonal production of antifreeze substances. Nitrogen is normally excreted through the release of ammonia into the water, but in pre-hatched larvae and in environments where ammonia release is unfavourable, urea is produced by an operational ornithine-urea cycle. Adaptations to deep water are characterised by responses to decreasing illumination, food availability, low population density, and increased hydrostatic pressure.Less
This chapter discusses challenging habitats, examples of the populations of fish present, and the physiological adaptations shown by the fish. The topics selected are life in hypoxic environments, air-breathing strategies, life in the coldest and warmest environments, stress, life in acid and alkaline environments and nitrogenous excretion, extremes of salinity, and the depths. Fish show an amazing range of adaptations to extreme environments, such as modifications of the respiratory and circulatory systems for air breathing; in waters of sub-zero temperatures the body is protected from freezing by seasonal production of antifreeze substances. Nitrogen is normally excreted through the release of ammonia into the water, but in pre-hatched larvae and in environments where ammonia release is unfavourable, urea is produced by an operational ornithine-urea cycle. Adaptations to deep water are characterised by responses to decreasing illumination, food availability, low population density, and increased hydrostatic pressure.
Jill Lancaster and Barbara J. Downes
- Published in print:
- 2013
- Published Online:
- December 2013
- ISBN:
- 9780199573219
- eISBN:
- 9780191774850
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199573219.003.0004
- Subject:
- Biology, Aquatic Biology, Animal Biology
This chapter discusses how insects are affected by temperature variations and extremes, and the different adaptations that allow some independence of ambient temperatures (behavioural and ...
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This chapter discusses how insects are affected by temperature variations and extremes, and the different adaptations that allow some independence of ambient temperatures (behavioural and physiological thermoregulation) and that facilitate survival in extreme heat or cold. Stresses from water loss are discussed in the context of water balance (excretion and osmoregulation), and focus broadly on the mechanisms that allow survival in environments where water loss may be very high, such as saline lakes and marine habitats. The final section considers some extreme examples of aquatic life stages that can survive almost total dehydration, a form of cryptobiosis. These discussions provide a general description of the stresses and survival strategies, and avoid detailed descriptions of the underlying physiology and biochemistry.Less
This chapter discusses how insects are affected by temperature variations and extremes, and the different adaptations that allow some independence of ambient temperatures (behavioural and physiological thermoregulation) and that facilitate survival in extreme heat or cold. Stresses from water loss are discussed in the context of water balance (excretion and osmoregulation), and focus broadly on the mechanisms that allow survival in environments where water loss may be very high, such as saline lakes and marine habitats. The final section considers some extreme examples of aquatic life stages that can survive almost total dehydration, a form of cryptobiosis. These discussions provide a general description of the stresses and survival strategies, and avoid detailed descriptions of the underlying physiology and biochemistry.
Robert Laumbach and Michael Gochfeld
- Published in print:
- 2017
- Published Online:
- November 2017
- ISBN:
- 9780190662677
- eISBN:
- 9780190662707
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/oso/9780190662677.003.0007
- Subject:
- Public Health and Epidemiology, Public Health
This chapter describes the basic principles of toxicology and their application to occupational and environmental health. Topics covered include pathways that toxic substances may take from sources ...
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This chapter describes the basic principles of toxicology and their application to occupational and environmental health. Topics covered include pathways that toxic substances may take from sources in the environment to molecular targets in the cells of the body where toxic effects occur. These pathways include routes of exposure, absorption into the body, distribution to organs and tissues, metabolism, storage, and excretion. The various types of toxicological endpoints are discussed, along with the concepts of dose-response relationships, threshold doses, and the basis of interindividual differences and interspecies differences in response to exposure to toxic substances. The diversity of cellular and molecular mechanisms of toxicity, including enzyme induction and inhibition, oxidative stress, mutagenesis, carcinogenesis, and teratogenesis, are discussed and the chapter concludes with examples of practical applications in clinical evaluation and in toxicity testing.Less
This chapter describes the basic principles of toxicology and their application to occupational and environmental health. Topics covered include pathways that toxic substances may take from sources in the environment to molecular targets in the cells of the body where toxic effects occur. These pathways include routes of exposure, absorption into the body, distribution to organs and tissues, metabolism, storage, and excretion. The various types of toxicological endpoints are discussed, along with the concepts of dose-response relationships, threshold doses, and the basis of interindividual differences and interspecies differences in response to exposure to toxic substances. The diversity of cellular and molecular mechanisms of toxicity, including enzyme induction and inhibition, oxidative stress, mutagenesis, carcinogenesis, and teratogenesis, are discussed and the chapter concludes with examples of practical applications in clinical evaluation and in toxicity testing.
Derek Burton and Margaret Burton
- Published in print:
- 2017
- Published Online:
- December 2017
- ISBN:
- 9780198785552
- eISBN:
- 9780191827433
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/oso/9780198785552.003.0008
- Subject:
- Biology, Aquatic Biology, Animal Biology
Excretion is the removal of metabolic wastes such as ammonia, carbon dioxide, ions and water as well as toxic xenobiotics and metals. The process involves the gills, kidney, liver and rectal gland ...
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Excretion is the removal of metabolic wastes such as ammonia, carbon dioxide, ions and water as well as toxic xenobiotics and metals. The process involves the gills, kidney, liver and rectal gland (elasmobranchs and coelacanth). In the liver, amino acids, haemoglobin, steroids and molecules resulting from human activities are transformed to excretable products. The rectal gland excretes ions, notably Na+ and Cl−. The kidney in teleosts has a distinction between an anterior head-kidney containing haematopoietic tissue and endocrine tissue and the posterior region with nephrons (kidney tubules). Fish nephrons generally have a Malphigian corpuscle with a glomerulus but the structure varies between fish taxa and some marine teleosts lack a glomerulus. Control systems for fish excretion are unclear but it is expected that various hormones influence excretory homeostasis.Less
Excretion is the removal of metabolic wastes such as ammonia, carbon dioxide, ions and water as well as toxic xenobiotics and metals. The process involves the gills, kidney, liver and rectal gland (elasmobranchs and coelacanth). In the liver, amino acids, haemoglobin, steroids and molecules resulting from human activities are transformed to excretable products. The rectal gland excretes ions, notably Na+ and Cl−. The kidney in teleosts has a distinction between an anterior head-kidney containing haematopoietic tissue and endocrine tissue and the posterior region with nephrons (kidney tubules). Fish nephrons generally have a Malphigian corpuscle with a glomerulus but the structure varies between fish taxa and some marine teleosts lack a glomerulus. Control systems for fish excretion are unclear but it is expected that various hormones influence excretory homeostasis.
Donald Lateiner
- Published in print:
- 2016
- Published Online:
- January 2017
- ISBN:
- 9780190604110
- eISBN:
- 9780190604134
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780190604110.003.0011
- Subject:
- Classical Studies, World History: BCE to 500CE
The extant Latin novels address disgust more than earlier Latin genres did. Petronius and Apuleius enlist psychological mechanisms and sociocultural norms of disgust to satirize characters and ...
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The extant Latin novels address disgust more than earlier Latin genres did. Petronius and Apuleius enlist psychological mechanisms and sociocultural norms of disgust to satirize characters and practices of various groups. Internal and external audiences react with shock, fear, or dismay to creatures and practices deemed disgusting or threatening to our vulnerable human bodies, such as ingestion of unusual food substances (including cannibalism), open defecation and release of other bodily substances, deviant sex, mutilation of bodies, repellent diseased or deformed bodies, and unwanted contact with repulsive creatures (animals, insects, and plants) and substances such as offal and sewage. The chapter analyzes these two authors’ representations of gender and class differences, their methods and purposes for arousing disgust, and differences between their narrators’ reactions to disgusting phenomena.Less
The extant Latin novels address disgust more than earlier Latin genres did. Petronius and Apuleius enlist psychological mechanisms and sociocultural norms of disgust to satirize characters and practices of various groups. Internal and external audiences react with shock, fear, or dismay to creatures and practices deemed disgusting or threatening to our vulnerable human bodies, such as ingestion of unusual food substances (including cannibalism), open defecation and release of other bodily substances, deviant sex, mutilation of bodies, repellent diseased or deformed bodies, and unwanted contact with repulsive creatures (animals, insects, and plants) and substances such as offal and sewage. The chapter analyzes these two authors’ representations of gender and class differences, their methods and purposes for arousing disgust, and differences between their narrators’ reactions to disgusting phenomena.
