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This chapter explores how churches are redefining the creation of sacred space to reflect stewardship of the earth. The stories in this chapter include the initial steps taken by La Capilla de Santa Maria, a congregation of Latino immigrants in Western North Carolina, to promote energy efficiency, build a cob oven, and create a green jobs training program, and the green addition built by Pullen Memorial Baptist Church in Raleigh, North Carolina. The stories highlight the work of Interfaith Power and Light, a grassroots organization that provides a religious response to global warming. The lessons reveal how energy efficiency and green building can promote financial sustainability and social and environmental justice. This chapter also shows how green building can serve as a model in local communities and permeate the life of the church, reflecting religious values and spaces that draw people of faith closer to God.

For all that energy efficiency is remarkably simple, and the most remarkably potent force to move us beyond the carbon economy, legal measures to encourage it meet a surprising array of difficulties. So it is desirable to consider the nature of the law concerning the matter, and to consider at large rather than in relation to a catalogue of specific measures or in relation to any one country's efforts or experience. Energy efficiency contests the assumption that we need more and more energy inputs to satisfy our social and economic aspirations. This chapter examines the efficacy of energy efficiency measures, the place of price measures, the behavioural assumption that people will act rationally in response to price signals and other incentives, the legitimacy of paternalism as a ground for action, the design of measures to operate in a market, market liberalisation, multiple non-price barriers, and regulatory design generally.

There has been an exponential leap in the quantum of energy use worldwide, particularly in developed countries, since the end of World War II. In addition, energy use is rising rapidly in the emerging economies and is also expected to rise exponentially as more developing countries experience significant economic growth. This has led to increased energy trade. In addition, the growing recognition of the environmental issues associated with energy use and production, such as climate change and air and water pollution, has resulted in energy becoming of increasing importance in the development of international environmental law. The majority of the legal instruments relating to environmental aspects of energy law has been developed since 1987 and represents the application of sustainable development principles. This chapter examines the most important of these energy-related instruments in chronological sequence, dealing first with relevant conventions and then with non-binding, ‘soft law’ declarations. First, however, it asks whether customary international law has a role to play in this area. It then discusses the international significance of renewable energy and energy efficiency.

This chapter describes how, for four decades, California has been at the forefront of national efforts to improve energy efficiency and reduce greenhouse gas emissions. These initiatives began with policies to reduce energy use in order to avoid the construction of additional power plants and went on to include progressively more stringent energy efficiency standards and renewable energy mandates, additional curbs on automotive emissions, and a cap-and-trade program designed to reduce statewide greenhouse gas emissions. The emergence and expansion of these efforts demonstrates the importance of the factors that have shaped environmental policy innovations in other areas. At the same time, these policies are also distinct from those described in the previous chapters. First, they developed more incrementally, with some backsliding, much conflict, and frequent compromises. Second, some of their policy triggers—most notably, the 1973 energy crisis and California's 2000–2001 energy deregulation fiasco—were unrelated to environmental risks or threats. Third, their scope, diversity, and economic impact have been more substantial than those of the state's regulations protecting land use, coastal areas, and automotive emissions. Finally, and perhaps most importantly, in marked contrast to the state's other environmental policy threats, California cannot protect itself from the risks of global climate change. This means that the state has a critical stake in promoting a “California effect” that will encourage other political jurisdictions both in and outside the United States to also restrict their greenhouse gas emissions.

This chapter reveals how churches are transforming the ministry of disaster relief and rebuilding by integrating the environment into their efforts. Many churches and faith organizations are making the environment a priority as they respond to the increasing scale of natural disasters precipitated by climate change. The stories in this chapter along the Gulf Coast include the congregation of St. John Baptist Church, which integrated energy efficiency into their rebuilt church; a group of innovative churches called Sustainable Churches for South Louisiana; a program called Desire Street Ministries, which rebuilds churches and educates youth; and the Jericho Road Housing Initiative, which is spearheading energy-efficient, affordable housing. The lessons learned point to the power of hope from faith, the importance of coordinating sustainability among denominations, the potential for partnerships with secular environmental groups, and the long-term economic gains from investing in green building.

The chapter focuses on the analysis of energy resource balance and the ecological limits on energy resources with special reference to the oil crisis in both the global and the Indian context. It discusses the roles of fossil fuels, nuclear energy, hydro resources, renewables like biomass, bioliquids and other aboitic renewables particularly wind and solar energy resources in providing the energy security for India with some sectorwise details as well as their implications in respect of environmental degradation over the full life cycle of their respective uses. The chapter further discusses the economic effects of the ecological limits as expressed in the forms of resource scarcity and environmental pollution. It then reviews the trend of past energy and carbon efficiency of India and the projections of the same in future as per the study of the expert group of the planning commission and discusses their policy implications

Britain has sought to integrate environmental concerns into policy decision-making at all levels. To this end, the first environment white paper introduced two institutions which would ‘ensure that … environmental issues are fully weighed in decisions’. One was the Cabinet Committee for the Environment, later replaced by the Ministerial Committee on the Environment. The other was the introduction of a ‘green minister’ in each government department. In the first white paper on sustainable development, published in 1994, the government confirmed its commitment to policy integration. How and to what extent was this government aspiration achieved over the problem of global warming? This chapter focuses on British policy integration on global warming by first providing an overview on energy policy and global warming, competitive prices versus energy efficiency, renewable energy, and coal protection. It then discusses transport policy and global warming, measures to improve fuel efficiency, and research and development on low-emission vehicles.

This chapter explains that energy demand can be decoupled from economic growth, so there can be more consumption with less energy. Energy efficiency can be increased and energy demand cut, while making a profit at the same time. This demand reduction will reduce emissions and, by cutting energy bills, enable customers to absorb the higher costs of renewables. Government incentives are complex; budgets are compartmentalized; and there is no direct link between cost savings, career prospects, and departmental interests. Thus, it is an area where there is much work to be done. A carbon price would help dampen energy demand as well as increase energy efficiency. The energy efficiency argument is hence based on grand claims about the scale of the prize, with little evidence that the gains are anything like as big as suggested; and nobody can object to making energy consumption as efficient as possible.

To the extent that the problem of global warming arises from existing socio-economic activities, tackling it will entail an institutional metamorphosis towards a more sustainable form of socio-economic system. This will require a realignment of broad policy goals, which itself may require changes in policy-making institutions. Such changes have been referred to as policy integration, which is the theme of this chapter. The integration of environmental concerns into general economic policy in Japan started around the time of the Earth Summit in 1992. This chapter looks at policy integration specifically in the areas of global warming and energy and transportation, focusing on whether and how global warming policy caused policy and institutional developments. It first provides a background on Japanese energy policy, energy efficiency policy, electricity prices and demand, and the promotion of ‘new energy’. It then explores Japan's nuclear energy policy, energy taxation and finance, coal and global warming, transport and global warming, fuel efficiency, concerted action for the promotion of low-emission vehicles, and policy co-optation and exclusion of environmental interests.

Although its historical greenhouse gas emissions are very low and per capita emissions are below the world average, China is the second largest emitter of greenhouse gases, next to the United States. As a developing country at a low developmental stage, with a huge population, a coal-dominated energy mix, and relatively low capacity to tackle climate change, China will surely face severe challenges when coping with climate change along with the acceleration of urbanisation, industrialisation, and the increase of residential energy consumption. The Chinese government has made great efforts to promote technology advancement and energy efficiency improvement, among other initiatives. This has significantly reduced and mitigated the increase of greenhouse gas emissions and the impacts thereof. After providing some general background information, this chapter examines the relevant legal issues that are closely related to the development of a low-carbon economy in China, such as the laws on energy conservation, renewable energy, nuclear energy and hydrogen energy, and the development of new energy technology.

Carbon dioxide accounts for about 90 per cent of greenhouse emissions in Japan, and about 90 per cent of these carbon dioxide emissions stem from energy-related sources. The historical growth in these emissions is due largely to the growth in energy demand rather than the pattern of use of fossil fuels. This chapter examines policy developments in Japan on global warming, focusing on the politics of conflict and the producer-oriented policy response. After providing an overview on the emergence of global warming on the Japanese political agenda, the chapter discusses the policy of target-setting in carbon dioxide control, differences in opinion between the Environment Agency and the Ministry of International Trade and Industry, progress after the Earth Summit, the Japanese strategy to tackle global warming, Japan's energy efficiency policy, policy frameworks for the promotion of new energy, voluntary action of Japanese industry in the conservation of global environment, and environment taxes.

This chapter presents a continuum of building-level actions cities are taking in light of the political and economic constraints they face. It begins by explaining the continuum of building-efficiency standards cities are using as well as a continuum of action that runs from individual buildings to all buildings in a defined district. It examines two categories of standards: those for constructing new buildings and those for retrofitting existing buildings. The chapter also considers the question of who gets to occupy green buildings—with the reduced energy costs they make possible—highlighting how some cities are building green low-income housing using methods that are then taken statewide. Finally, it examines how cities, in collaboration with the private and nonprofit sectors, are serving as test beds for technical, financing, and equity greenovations that can be scaled for policy in larger political geographies and for private market participation.

Moving beyond the carbon economy requires, on the one hand, greater reliance on renewable energy sources combined with the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions, and, on the other hand, a reduction in energy consumption by promoting energy efficiency and eco-technologies. This chapter explores how law can act on market forces in transitioning beyond the carbon economy in order to reach a sustainable energy model. New legal instruments based on market regulation are increasingly being used to that purpose and are intended to stimulate the required change of habits. New in their approach, often perceived as complex, even unknown to the individual consumer, marked-based instruments (MBIs) have become popular tools. In examining the role of MBIs in transitioning to a lower-carbon future, the experience of the European Union is discussed, and comparisons are drawn with the pioneer of MBIs, the United States. This chapter also looks at the rationales for the use of MBIs and analyses the underlying similarities and differences among MBIs, in particular green, white, and brown certificates.

In this chapter, we examine India’s stumbling block to green growth— energy supply. By establishing the comparison between India and China, both with similar energy demands, we argue that regulation and inefficient government action, exacerbated by limited resources and growing population, severely hampered India’s economic development. We further examine India’s energy industry by giving a detailed look of the electricity deficit and potential policy solutions. We conclude from recent studies and on-the-ground projects suggest that energy efficiency programs and renewable energy could potentially provide a means to address the deficit in absolute, disruptive, and geographical terms at a lower cost than business as usual strategies. Although India has rather insufficient fossil fuel reserves and rapidly expanding economy, these unique circumstances may offer India a chance and an incentive to explore and derive economic gain from a variety of green growth strategies.

This chapter examines the hidden costs and unintended consequences of efforts to improve energy efficiency as a way to mitigate global climate change. It first considers the nature of hidden costs associated with energy-efficiency improvements and the rebound effects of such improvements. It suggests that the economic potential for energy saving is more likely to be overestimated through the neglect of rebound effects than through the neglect of hidden costs. Complementary policy responses are available to address both of these problems and can be effective in many circumstances, but the existence of non-trivial rebound effects raises some concerns about whether energy consumption can be significantly decoupled from economic growth. The chapter also discusses the production costs, organisational transaction costs, and market transaction costs of energy-efficiency improvements.

Chapter 8 concludes with suggestions about how to promote cheaper, safer, more ethical, and less carbon-intensive energies, such as renewables, conservation, and energy efficiencies. It shows that people are misled not only about the energy costs of nuclear fission, but also about fission's climate-emissions costs (chapter 2), its financial costs (chapter 3), its safety costs (chapter 4), its equity and justice costs (chapter 5), and its opportunity costs—because nuclear investments take money away from cleaner, cheaper, safer, more equitable, and more abundant renewable-energy sources (chapter 6). The seemingly disparate interests of the market, citizens’ safety concerns, CC, ethical concerns, and common sense actually all dictate the same course of action: using renewable energy, conservation, and efficiency to address CC.

The first of a set of cases, this examination of the history of Danish energy policy shows that a classic green spiral effect has led over time to the decoupling of emissions and economic growth. This spiral begins with Denmark’s response to the oil crisis of the 1970s, which led to energy security policies that shifted commercial and industrial infrastructure toward high energy efficiency, developed a thriving wind energy industry, and encouraged a broad grass-roots constituency that benefited from wind generation. These shifts in interest fed back into policymaking. Ultimately, policy-industry feedback over time has led to a paradigmatic shift in Denmark’s energy industry and policy. Denmark’s energy industry now sees its own interests as invested in, not threatened by, green policy. For example, DONG Energy is pulling back from investment in coal power and expects to derive future growth from low-carbon investments and green regulation.