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This chapter begins by providing an overview of the basic arguments of the dual labour market approach and of previous attempts to construct a formal analytical framework, and, by drawing attention to some important but neglected points, proposes a synthesis with which to understand the working of the labour market. Section 5.1 examines various empirical criticisms of the neoclassical theory, and discusses the need for a new analytical framework as well as the features that must be incorporated into such a framework; the section also serves as an introduction to the theoretical discussion that follows. Section 5.2 considers the determinants of the division of labour and of technology that are treated as exogenous in the neoclassical theory from a historical and political‐economy viewpoint, and also briefly surveys the historical process that gave rise to the internal labour markets of firms ( the key concept in this approach). Section 5.3 discusses the content of the dual labour market hypothesis, and Sect. 5.4 constructs a model of the economy with dual labour markets and analyses the determinants of earnings distribution in the long run, also examining points of controversy with the neoclassical approach. Section 5.5 presents an analytical framework embodying the theory of incentive‐dependent exchange, derives implications on the allocation of employment opportunities and the distribution of earnings, and discusses in what respects this theory competes with the neoclassical theory.

This chapter focuses on the rise of feminism in the 1960s and the downfall of single-sex protective laws. Protection's downfall rested not on the Equal Employment Opportunities Commission (EEOC), but rather on the courts—on women employees who sued for equal rights in federal courts under Title VII and the lawyers who represented them; on pressure from feminist organizations, notably the National Organization for Women (NOW), that supported the plaintiffs; on a series of court decisions that upset protective laws; and on a mounting consensus among judges in favor of equal rights. Also important was feminist resurgence, which swayed conviction; shifts in public opinion culminated in the passage in Congress of an ERA in 1972. Single-sex protective laws were thus the first casualties of the new feminism. Once central to the women's movement, they became obstacles on the path to equal rights.

Eric Fenrich studies the efforts of Black activists and NASA to increase minority educational access that would lead to greater participation in the space program. According to Fenrich, the concurrence of the civil rights movement and the American space program reveal the two primary methods by which the advocates in the modern era have sought to advance the interests of African Americans. First, a negative project: the removal of formal barriers to the exercise of rights, more specifically, ending discriminatory practices in Equal Employment Opportunity and education. Second, more positive efforts, such as equal employment opportunities or affirmative action, that place opportunities within the reach of historically disadvantaged people. Fenrich also examines the fallout over James C. Fletcher’s firing of Ruth Bates Harris.

Maxwell C. Stanford and Stanley Daniels were African Americans who had gone to a Philadelphia school construction site demonstration in order to document what the NAACP intended to be a peaceful protest against the discrimination exercised by local construction unions. Because of the local union control imposed in the hiring process, skilled black construction workers were not hired to be a part of the school construction, as with other construction projects that were funded by the city. Blacks were employed in jobs referred to as “trowel trades” as those did not require much or any skill at all. Although the hiring policies saw the shift from exclusivity to tokenism, the economic downturn in the early 1960s showed how tokenism fell short. This chapter illustrates how, through legislation and the enforcement of executive officers, civil rights advocates convinced Kennedy's administration to provide equal opportunity for employment.

Brian Odom surveys the implementation of Equal Employment Opportunity at NASA’s Marshall Space Flight Center in Huntsville, Alabama. Odom contends that Marshall’s strategy focused on recruiting qualified African American engineering students outside Alabama and developing a partnership with the Association of Huntsville Area Contractors (AHAC) locally. By serving as both a catalyst for technical educational programs in the Huntsville community and clearinghouse for job opportunities and racial dialogue, AHAC facilitated a modicum of progress toward minority gains. During the civil rights movement, local activists such as Dr. Sonnie Hereford III and aerospace executives, including Brown Engineering Company’s Milton K. Cummings, brokered “backroom” agreements meant to improve Alabama’s “image” problem.

This chapter focuses on the Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act of 1996 (PRWORA), characterized as a regressive step that compromises the basic right of a safety net because employment opportunities are not available to most welfare recipients. The chapter focuses the changes brought about by PRWORA and the economic context and welfare reform. PRWORA totally abolished Aid to Families with Dependent Children (AFDC), replacing it with a system of block grants to state governments.

This chapter discusses the Urban League's continued perception of government assistance as essential to achieving its traditional goals of helping blacks obtain employment while adjusting them to the economic realities of the day. The combination of expanding employment opportunities and the swelling tide of left-wing politics ultimately strengthened the League's commitment to a kind of militancy that generally muted the class implications of the group's program through the first half of the decade. Even so, Urban Leaguers shed neither their concerns about social disorganization nor their special interest in the plight of the black middle class. The Urban League's calls for state intervention on behalf of Afro-Americans in this period were, as was the case during the New Deal, consistent with the group's general emphasis on the proficient performance of black labor and the integrity of the Afro-American community.

This chapter reviews research about parental perspectives and experiences of paid work. It highlights discrepancies between parental aspirations and preferences in relation to work-family issues and dominant current policy perspectives which inform welfare to work and family-friendly employment policies. The chapter further finds that, while recent childcare, in-work support, and employability reforms have extended support and opportunities to many parents, the framework of support for parents in relation to employment opportunities and experiences does not fully take account of the ongoing difficulties some parents face in taking up and sustaining training and paid employment, or achieving a satisfactory work-family balance. The coexistence of different ideal models of fatherhood can place pressures on fathers to maintain the main-provider role while additionally being involved in family life and contributing to childcare.

Christina Roberts explores the perception that NASA performed poorly in hiring women during the long civil rights era, arguing that that argument is based on low recruitment numbers by comparison with many other federal agencies. Others blame NASA’s poor recruitment efforts on an entrenched white male corporate culture that resisted hiring women and minorities into the early 1970s. While not denying NASA difficulties in the area, Roberts argues that what is missing from the historiography is a discussion of gender including NASA’s actual public outreach efforts for equal employment opportunity for women scientists and engineers. Roberts contends that during the late 1950s to mid-1960s NASA sought to transmit a message that women such as Nancy Grace Roman were welcome to apply and would attain professional science and engineering careers at NASA.

Labour's strong focus on employment is rooted at the historical heart of the party. Although employment is still an aspiration for the party, their approach to employment policy has changed significantly from the approach of the previous Labour governments. New Labour's approach to achieving full employment and motivation have changed considerably. In the 1908s and 1990s when levels of employment were relatively high, New Labour became cautious about pledging a commitment to full employment. However, when Labour came to power, a new definition of employment was put forward. The emphasis shifted from employment for all to employment opportunity for all. This chapter examines the progress of Labour's Employment Opportunity for All agenda. It identifies the areas where New Labour's approach differs from previous approaches and assesses the appropriateness of Labour's emphasis on employment in its bid to reduce poverty. The chapter also assesses Labour's performance by first looking at macroeconomic trends in the labour market before turning to specific groups.

This chapter examines acts of religious discrimination at various stages of the employment relationship. A worker who intends to pursue a religious discrimination claim against his or her employer may turn to the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC). When a worker files a charge, the EEOC investigates the allegations of discrimination. That investigation typically leads either to a “for cause” finding (there is reason to believe that the worker was subjected to discriminatory conduct) or a “no cause” finding (there is no reason to believe that the employer engaged in discriminatory conduct). This chapter discusses religious discrimination claims asserted during the employment relationship, focusing on the following areas: hiring and promotions; dress codes, general attire, and personal appearance; work assignments; discipline; wages and benefits; transfers; and layoffs. It also considers a number of court cases that illustrate the problems typically encountered by workers as they pursue their religious discrimination claims before the EEOC and the courts.

This chapter examines how the law protects employees from acts of employer retaliation when they are engaged in exercising the rights granted them by Title VII. Employers have a tendency to react negatively to charges of employment discrimination—whether religious, race, sex, national origin, age, or disability. Charges alleging retaliation in violation of Title VII precepts, filed annually with the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, steadily increased between 1997 and 2009. Title VII makes it unlawful for an employer to retaliate against a worker who charges it with a discriminatory policy or practice or who participates in a legal or administrative proceeding relating to the company's employment policies or practices. This chapter provides an overview of Title VII proscriptions against retaliation as well as the major components of retaliation. It also considers court cases that center on issues that normally arise in religious discrimination cases when workers also charge their employers with retaliatory conduct.

This chapter reflects on issues arising from the practice of religion in the workplace and how to resolve them. Employers and employees will confront complex issues that typically occur in the struggle to protect the rights of those who wish to exercise their religious beliefs while also securing the rights of those who elect not to participate in workplace religious activities. Title VII and the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) have been the primary avenues for resolving religious disputes in the workplace. This chapter considers whether Title VII and the EEOC offer the best ways of resolving religious disputes by focusing on the case of Home Depot, which failed to accommodate the Sabbath observance of one of its workers, Bradley Baker. It argues that dealing with religious matters in the workplace requires common sense, good business practices, and a continuing attitude of respect for all parties involved. It also contends that litigation is not the ideal way for an employer or an employee to cope with offensive or hostile work environment problems.

This chapter looks at how the rapid aging of Japanese society has changed employment opportunities for youth. It concludes that a decline in overall labor demand largely resulted in reduced employment opportunities for youth, while the employment of middle-aged and older workers was relatively safeguarded. A large part of the contraction in the labor demand for younger workers has been due to job displacement by a graying workforce, especially within large firms.

This chapter explores the ways in which learning difficulties are understood at the present time, demonstrating the inadequacy of explanations based solely on biological or social constructions. It argues that it is possible to discern many versions of a Learning Society, each having particular connotations for people with learning difficulties and wider implications for the future nature of citizenship. The chapter explores the range of education, training, and employment opportunities available to people with learning difficulties. It aims not only to understand the contexts and experiences of this significant minority but also, through the analysis of the group specifically marginalized in a Learning Society, to understand the nature of that type of society more generally.

This chapter references the literature on gendered settlement preferences. It stresses the importance of comparing the status and employment opportunities of immigrants in the United States with what they might possibly return to in their home countries. One section provides a comparison of two groups of well-educated White middle-class immigrants: Russian Jewish and Israeli Jewish immigrants. The common factor between these two groups is the importance they place on their religious-ethnic identity as Jews. The chapter is able to determine that what these immigrant men and women left back home serves to be crucial in their assessments of their life in the United States.