Alfred Greiner and Willi Semmler
- Published in print:
- 2008
- Published Online:
- September 2008
- ISBN:
- 9780195328233
- eISBN:
- 9780199869985
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195328233.003.0009
- Subject:
- Economics and Finance, Development, Growth, and Environmental
This chapter describes scientific knowledge concerning greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and the change in global average surface temperature. It considers the climate system of the Earth is in terms of ...
More
This chapter describes scientific knowledge concerning greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and the change in global average surface temperature. It considers the climate system of the Earth is in terms of its global energy balance using so-called energy balance models (EBM).Less
This chapter describes scientific knowledge concerning greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and the change in global average surface temperature. It considers the climate system of the Earth is in terms of its global energy balance using so-called energy balance models (EBM).
Takashi Fujimoto
- Published in print:
- 2004
- Published Online:
- September 2007
- ISBN:
- 9780198530282
- eISBN:
- 9780191713149
- Item type:
- book
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198530282.001.0001
- Subject:
- Physics, Nuclear and Plasma Physics
This book presents a theoretical framework of plasma spectroscopy, in which the observed spectral line intensities or the populations of excited levels of atoms or ions immersed in plasma are ...
More
This book presents a theoretical framework of plasma spectroscopy, in which the observed spectral line intensities or the populations of excited levels of atoms or ions immersed in plasma are interpreted in terms of the characteristics of the plasma. Following a review of important atomic processes in plasma, the rate equation governing the populations in excited levels and the ground state is solved in the collisional-radiative model. In this model, plasmas are classified into the ionizing plasma and the recombining plasma. Various features of these plasmas are examined. Ionization and recombination of atoms and ions are also treated in the model. An emission-line intensity is proportional to the ionization flux or to the recombination flux, and thus the ionization-balance plasma produces less intense emission lines. The recombination continuum intensity continues smoothly to the series lines, originating from levels in local thermodynamic equilibrium, so that the Boltzmann plot of the population of these levels is extended to the continuum-state electrons. Line broadening mechanisms are discussed, including the Stark broadening. Radiation transport gives rise to a modification to the emission line profile and to an effective decrease in the transition probability; the latter problem is treated in two alternative approaches. Phenomena characteristic of dense plasma are discussed, including the excitation and deexcitation processes of ions involving doubly excited levels and a modification to the Saha relationship.Less
This book presents a theoretical framework of plasma spectroscopy, in which the observed spectral line intensities or the populations of excited levels of atoms or ions immersed in plasma are interpreted in terms of the characteristics of the plasma. Following a review of important atomic processes in plasma, the rate equation governing the populations in excited levels and the ground state is solved in the collisional-radiative model. In this model, plasmas are classified into the ionizing plasma and the recombining plasma. Various features of these plasmas are examined. Ionization and recombination of atoms and ions are also treated in the model. An emission-line intensity is proportional to the ionization flux or to the recombination flux, and thus the ionization-balance plasma produces less intense emission lines. The recombination continuum intensity continues smoothly to the series lines, originating from levels in local thermodynamic equilibrium, so that the Boltzmann plot of the population of these levels is extended to the continuum-state electrons. Line broadening mechanisms are discussed, including the Stark broadening. Radiation transport gives rise to a modification to the emission line profile and to an effective decrease in the transition probability; the latter problem is treated in two alternative approaches. Phenomena characteristic of dense plasma are discussed, including the excitation and deexcitation processes of ions involving doubly excited levels and a modification to the Saha relationship.
Winston Harrington and Richard D. Morgenstern
- Published in print:
- 2006
- Published Online:
- January 2007
- ISBN:
- 9780195189650
- eISBN:
- 9780199783694
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195189650.003.0005
- Subject:
- Economics and Finance, Development, Growth, and Environmental
This essay presents the results of an international effort to compare the actual outcomes of pollution control policies using economic incentive (EI) instruments with those using direct regulation or ...
More
This essay presents the results of an international effort to compare the actual outcomes of pollution control policies using economic incentive (EI) instruments with those using direct regulation or “command and control” (CAC). For six environmental problems, the policies used by the federal government in the United States are compared with the policies of one or more Western European countries. To the extent possible the problems and the policies were chosen so that a CAC policy on one side of the Atlantic is paired with an EI policy on the other. The six problems are: (1) SO2 emissions from utility and industrial boilers, (2) NOx emissions from utility and industrial boilers, (3) point source industrial water pollution, (4) phase out of leaded gasoline, (5) phase out of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and other ozone-depleting substances (ODSs), and (6) chlorinated solvents.Less
This essay presents the results of an international effort to compare the actual outcomes of pollution control policies using economic incentive (EI) instruments with those using direct regulation or “command and control” (CAC). For six environmental problems, the policies used by the federal government in the United States are compared with the policies of one or more Western European countries. To the extent possible the problems and the policies were chosen so that a CAC policy on one side of the Atlantic is paired with an EI policy on the other. The six problems are: (1) SO2 emissions from utility and industrial boilers, (2) NOx emissions from utility and industrial boilers, (3) point source industrial water pollution, (4) phase out of leaded gasoline, (5) phase out of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and other ozone-depleting substances (ODSs), and (6) chlorinated solvents.
Ramón López and Michael A. Toman (eds)
- Published in print:
- 2006
- Published Online:
- September 2006
- ISBN:
- 9780199298006
- eISBN:
- 9780191603877
- Item type:
- book
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/0199298009.001.0001
- Subject:
- Economics and Finance, Development, Growth, and Environmental
This paper examines the record of urban population growth, health, and health care spending in developing countries; describes the linkage between urban air pollution and health; and weighs policy ...
More
This paper examines the record of urban population growth, health, and health care spending in developing countries; describes the linkage between urban air pollution and health; and weighs policy responses to reduce stationary and mobile source air pollution. The stylized facts of developing countries necessitate adaptation and working within the limitations of each country, and argue for a preference towards applying economic incentive approaches to stationary source problems. A variety of incentive and control and command policies are available to reduce the emissions from mobile sources. An examination of case studies demonstrates that NGOs are willing to bring about the creation of the infrastructure to set air quality goals, and implement the measures necessary to achieving these goals. Ultimately, however, local and national governments must be responsible for such goal setting and implementation.Less
This paper examines the record of urban population growth, health, and health care spending in developing countries; describes the linkage between urban air pollution and health; and weighs policy responses to reduce stationary and mobile source air pollution. The stylized facts of developing countries necessitate adaptation and working within the limitations of each country, and argue for a preference towards applying economic incentive approaches to stationary source problems. A variety of incentive and control and command policies are available to reduce the emissions from mobile sources. An examination of case studies demonstrates that NGOs are willing to bring about the creation of the infrastructure to set air quality goals, and implement the measures necessary to achieving these goals. Ultimately, however, local and national governments must be responsible for such goal setting and implementation.
Jody Freeman and Charles D. Kolstad
- Published in print:
- 2006
- Published Online:
- January 2007
- ISBN:
- 9780195189650
- eISBN:
- 9780199783694
- Item type:
- book
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195189650.001.0001
- Subject:
- Economics and Finance, Development, Growth, and Environmental
Over the last decade, market-based incentives have become the regulatory tool of choice when trying to solve difficult environmental problems. Evidence of their dominance can be seen in recent ...
More
Over the last decade, market-based incentives have become the regulatory tool of choice when trying to solve difficult environmental problems. Evidence of their dominance can be seen in recent proposals for addressing global warming (through an emissions trading scheme in the Kyoto Protocol) and for amending the Clean Air Act (to add a new emissions trading systems for smog precursors and mercury — the Bush administration's “Clear Skies” program). They are widely viewed as more efficient than traditional command and control regulation. This collection of essays takes a critical look at this question, and evaluates whether the promises of market-based regulation have been fulfilled. Contributors put forth the ideas that few regulatory instruments are actually purely market-based, or purely prescriptive, and that both approaches can be systematically undermined by insufficiently careful design and by failures of monitoring and enforcement. All in all, the essays recommend future research that no longer pits one kind of approach against the other, but instead examines their interaction and compatibility. This book should appeal to academics in environmental economics and law, along with policymakers in government agencies and advocates in non-governmental organizations.Less
Over the last decade, market-based incentives have become the regulatory tool of choice when trying to solve difficult environmental problems. Evidence of their dominance can be seen in recent proposals for addressing global warming (through an emissions trading scheme in the Kyoto Protocol) and for amending the Clean Air Act (to add a new emissions trading systems for smog precursors and mercury — the Bush administration's “Clear Skies” program). They are widely viewed as more efficient than traditional command and control regulation. This collection of essays takes a critical look at this question, and evaluates whether the promises of market-based regulation have been fulfilled. Contributors put forth the ideas that few regulatory instruments are actually purely market-based, or purely prescriptive, and that both approaches can be systematically undermined by insufficiently careful design and by failures of monitoring and enforcement. All in all, the essays recommend future research that no longer pits one kind of approach against the other, but instead examines their interaction and compatibility. This book should appeal to academics in environmental economics and law, along with policymakers in government agencies and advocates in non-governmental organizations.
Jody Freeman and Charles D. Kolstad
- Published in print:
- 2006
- Published Online:
- January 2007
- ISBN:
- 9780195189650
- eISBN:
- 9780199783694
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195189650.003.0001
- Subject:
- Economics and Finance, Development, Growth, and Environmental
This chapter begins with a discussion of the rationale for evaluating the performance of market instruments for environmental regulation. It then describes how the volume combined the disciplines of ...
More
This chapter begins with a discussion of the rationale for evaluating the performance of market instruments for environmental regulation. It then describes how the volume combined the disciplines of economics and law to produce some important lessons and strong cross-cutting themes. An overview of the essays included in this volume is presented.Less
This chapter begins with a discussion of the rationale for evaluating the performance of market instruments for environmental regulation. It then describes how the volume combined the disciplines of economics and law to produce some important lessons and strong cross-cutting themes. An overview of the essays included in this volume is presented.
Ellerman A. Denny
- Published in print:
- 2006
- Published Online:
- January 2007
- ISBN:
- 9780195189650
- eISBN:
- 9780199783694
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195189650.003.0003
- Subject:
- Economics and Finance, Development, Growth, and Environmental
This essay explains why cap-and-trade programs (in which government establishes an overall cap on pollution but allows firms to trade allocations beneath the cap) can be both more economically ...
More
This essay explains why cap-and-trade programs (in which government establishes an overall cap on pollution but allows firms to trade allocations beneath the cap) can be both more economically efficient and more environmentally effective than prescriptive regulation. It underscores the importance of measuring effectiveness in ex post evaluations, which are defined as achieving the proximate goal (i.e., of emissions reduction), rather than the larger goal of solving the underlying problem (i.e., unhealthy air). The argument in favor of market instruments is supported with data from three emissions trading programs: the SO2 trading regime in Title IV of the Clean Air Act, the NOx budget program created by the EPA to address interstate ozone migration, and the RECLAIM program created by the South Coast Air Quality Management District in Southern California. It is proposed that market instruments represent a new pragmatism in environmental regulation and that they are part of the maturation of the regulatory process.Less
This essay explains why cap-and-trade programs (in which government establishes an overall cap on pollution but allows firms to trade allocations beneath the cap) can be both more economically efficient and more environmentally effective than prescriptive regulation. It underscores the importance of measuring effectiveness in ex post evaluations, which are defined as achieving the proximate goal (i.e., of emissions reduction), rather than the larger goal of solving the underlying problem (i.e., unhealthy air). The argument in favor of market instruments is supported with data from three emissions trading programs: the SO2 trading regime in Title IV of the Clean Air Act, the NOx budget program created by the EPA to address interstate ozone migration, and the RECLAIM program created by the South Coast Air Quality Management District in Southern California. It is proposed that market instruments represent a new pragmatism in environmental regulation and that they are part of the maturation of the regulatory process.
Nathaniel O. Keohane
- Published in print:
- 2006
- Published Online:
- January 2007
- ISBN:
- 9780195189650
- eISBN:
- 9780199783694
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195189650.003.0008
- Subject:
- Economics and Finance, Development, Growth, and Environmental
This essay offers a comprehensive assessment of the cost savings over the first five years of the allowance trading program. The current study has two methodological advantages over the previous ...
More
This essay offers a comprehensive assessment of the cost savings over the first five years of the allowance trading program. The current study has two methodological advantages over the previous ones. The first is the completeness of the data used. Like the two previous studies, this study estimates scrubber costs from costs reported in survey data, although the current study is able to use cost data from the full five years of Phase I. The data on coal prices used here are much more detailed than that in the other two studies, allowing for plant-level estimates of sulfur premia and counterfactual sulfur content. The second and more significant advantage of the current study is methodological. It employs an econometric model of the abatement choices actually made by utilities to simulate the decisions that would have been made under prescriptive regulation. Thus, abatement costs under counterfactual policies are estimated on the basis of observed behavior under actual policy regimes, rather than on the basis of engineering estimates or least-cost algorithms.Less
This essay offers a comprehensive assessment of the cost savings over the first five years of the allowance trading program. The current study has two methodological advantages over the previous ones. The first is the completeness of the data used. Like the two previous studies, this study estimates scrubber costs from costs reported in survey data, although the current study is able to use cost data from the full five years of Phase I. The data on coal prices used here are much more detailed than that in the other two studies, allowing for plant-level estimates of sulfur premia and counterfactual sulfur content. The second and more significant advantage of the current study is methodological. It employs an econometric model of the abatement choices actually made by utilities to simulate the decisions that would have been made under prescriptive regulation. Thus, abatement costs under counterfactual policies are estimated on the basis of observed behavior under actual policy regimes, rather than on the basis of engineering estimates or least-cost algorithms.
David M. Driesen
- Published in print:
- 2006
- Published Online:
- January 2007
- ISBN:
- 9780195189650
- eISBN:
- 9780199783694
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195189650.003.0016
- Subject:
- Economics and Finance, Development, Growth, and Environmental
This chapter makes two theoretical claims and two empirical claims. The first theoretical claim is that emissions trading does a poorer job, in theory, of encouraging expensive innovation than ...
More
This chapter makes two theoretical claims and two empirical claims. The first theoretical claim is that emissions trading does a poorer job, in theory, of encouraging expensive innovation than traditional regulation. It also argues that expensive innovation has special value that justifies the expense in some important cases. The second theoretical claim is that emissions trading may perform worse than traditional regulation in encouraging inexpensive innovation as well, at least in theory. The first empirical claim is that both emissions trading and traditional regulation have sometimes encouraged innovation and sometimes failed to do so. The second claim is that there is no convincing empirical evidence that trading fosters innovation better than a comparably designed traditional regulation.Less
This chapter makes two theoretical claims and two empirical claims. The first theoretical claim is that emissions trading does a poorer job, in theory, of encouraging expensive innovation than traditional regulation. It also argues that expensive innovation has special value that justifies the expense in some important cases. The second theoretical claim is that emissions trading may perform worse than traditional regulation in encouraging inexpensive innovation as well, at least in theory. The first empirical claim is that both emissions trading and traditional regulation have sometimes encouraged innovation and sometimes failed to do so. The second claim is that there is no convincing empirical evidence that trading fosters innovation better than a comparably designed traditional regulation.
Charles D. Bailyn
- Published in print:
- 2014
- Published Online:
- October 2017
- ISBN:
- 9780691148823
- eISBN:
- 9781400850563
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Princeton University Press
- DOI:
- 10.23943/princeton/9780691148823.003.0003
- Subject:
- Physics, Particle Physics / Astrophysics / Cosmology
This chapter looks at the presence of outflows or jets, a somewhat unexpected feature of accretion flows. There is strong observational evidence that some fraction of the infalling material reverses ...
More
This chapter looks at the presence of outflows or jets, a somewhat unexpected feature of accretion flows. There is strong observational evidence that some fraction of the infalling material reverses course near the accreting object and is shot out perpendicularly to the accretion disk. In some cases, narrow collimated beams of emission are observed emerging from the central-most regions of galaxies and continuing across the whole of the galaxy, depositing their energy hundreds of kiloparsecs away from their origin. These phenomena are sometimes described as jets “emerging” from a black hole. This parlance is misleading—the jets do not, and indeed could not, emerge from inside the event horizon. Rather, some mechanism redirects the energy generated by the accretion process into a fraction of the infalling material and provides enough bulk kinetic energy for the material to escape the accretion process before the material enters the event horizon.Less
This chapter looks at the presence of outflows or jets, a somewhat unexpected feature of accretion flows. There is strong observational evidence that some fraction of the infalling material reverses course near the accreting object and is shot out perpendicularly to the accretion disk. In some cases, narrow collimated beams of emission are observed emerging from the central-most regions of galaxies and continuing across the whole of the galaxy, depositing their energy hundreds of kiloparsecs away from their origin. These phenomena are sometimes described as jets “emerging” from a black hole. This parlance is misleading—the jets do not, and indeed could not, emerge from inside the event horizon. Rather, some mechanism redirects the energy generated by the accretion process into a fraction of the infalling material and provides enough bulk kinetic energy for the material to escape the accretion process before the material enters the event horizon.
Jessica F. Green
- Published in print:
- 2013
- Published Online:
- October 2017
- ISBN:
- 9780691157580
- eISBN:
- 9781400848669
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Princeton University Press
- DOI:
- 10.23943/princeton/9780691157580.003.0006
- Subject:
- Political Science, International Relations and Politics
This chapter examines a case of entrepreneurial authority in the climate change regime: the Greenhouse Gas Protocol. The protocol is a set of accounting standards to measure and report greenhouse gas ...
More
This chapter examines a case of entrepreneurial authority in the climate change regime: the Greenhouse Gas Protocol. The protocol is a set of accounting standards to measure and report greenhouse gas emissions created by individual firms. These standards were created by two nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), the World Resources Institute (WRI) and the World Business Council on Sustainable Development (WBCSD), and have subsequently become one of the most widely accepted accounting methodologies for measuring and reporting emissions. The chapter explains how these NGOs were able to insert themselves into the policy process while the United States and European Union were arguing about an appropriate role for emissions trading. In particular, it considers the success of WRI and WBCSD in creating the de facto standard for GHG emissions accounting at the firm (or “corporate”) level.Less
This chapter examines a case of entrepreneurial authority in the climate change regime: the Greenhouse Gas Protocol. The protocol is a set of accounting standards to measure and report greenhouse gas emissions created by individual firms. These standards were created by two nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), the World Resources Institute (WRI) and the World Business Council on Sustainable Development (WBCSD), and have subsequently become one of the most widely accepted accounting methodologies for measuring and reporting emissions. The chapter explains how these NGOs were able to insert themselves into the policy process while the United States and European Union were arguing about an appropriate role for emissions trading. In particular, it considers the success of WRI and WBCSD in creating the de facto standard for GHG emissions accounting at the firm (or “corporate”) level.
Joshua S. Bloom
- Published in print:
- 2011
- Published Online:
- October 2017
- ISBN:
- 9780691145570
- eISBN:
- 9781400837007
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Princeton University Press
- DOI:
- 10.23943/princeton/9780691145570.003.0002
- Subject:
- Physics, Particle Physics / Astrophysics / Cosmology
This chapter discusses the definition, emission, and central engine of gamma-ray bursts (GRBs). Before the afterglow era, GRBs were essentially defined by observations of their high-energy emission. ...
More
This chapter discusses the definition, emission, and central engine of gamma-ray bursts (GRBs). Before the afterglow era, GRBs were essentially defined by observations of their high-energy emission. The landscape of such observations—the light curves and spectra of the events—exhibits at once great diversity and elements of commonality that bind different events together. GRBs are like fingerprints: no two are alike, but they share common properties. Those common elements provide strong constraints both on the nature of the “engine” that supplies the energy to the event and the physical processes that drive the emission we see. Since the 1990s, GRB monitors in space have observed more than one hundred GRBs. Since 2004, the NASA GRB satellite called Swift has been discovering GRBs at a rate of about two per week.Less
This chapter discusses the definition, emission, and central engine of gamma-ray bursts (GRBs). Before the afterglow era, GRBs were essentially defined by observations of their high-energy emission. The landscape of such observations—the light curves and spectra of the events—exhibits at once great diversity and elements of commonality that bind different events together. GRBs are like fingerprints: no two are alike, but they share common properties. Those common elements provide strong constraints both on the nature of the “engine” that supplies the energy to the event and the physical processes that drive the emission we see. Since the 1990s, GRB monitors in space have observed more than one hundred GRBs. Since 2004, the NASA GRB satellite called Swift has been discovering GRBs at a rate of about two per week.
Joshua S. Bloom
- Published in print:
- 2011
- Published Online:
- October 2017
- ISBN:
- 9780691145570
- eISBN:
- 9781400837007
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Princeton University Press
- DOI:
- 10.23943/princeton/9780691145570.003.0004
- Subject:
- Physics, Particle Physics / Astrophysics / Cosmology
Prompt and afterglow emission of gamma-ray bursts (GRBs) are largely driven by the central engine behavior, the explosion properties, and the physics of relativistic shocks. Those seconds, minutes, ...
More
Prompt and afterglow emission of gamma-ray bursts (GRBs) are largely driven by the central engine behavior, the explosion properties, and the physics of relativistic shocks. Those seconds, minutes, and days after the main event tell a remarkable story about how the progenitors of GRBs end their life. But it is the context—where GRBs occur inside and out of galaxies and throughout cosmic time—that tell us how the progenitors lived. Indeed, GRB locations are treated like a crime scene, extracting forensic evidence to make a case about the lifecycle of a GRB progenitor. This chapter discusses local-, galactic-, and universal-scale observations of GRBs.Less
Prompt and afterglow emission of gamma-ray bursts (GRBs) are largely driven by the central engine behavior, the explosion properties, and the physics of relativistic shocks. Those seconds, minutes, and days after the main event tell a remarkable story about how the progenitors of GRBs end their life. But it is the context—where GRBs occur inside and out of galaxies and throughout cosmic time—that tell us how the progenitors lived. Indeed, GRB locations are treated like a crime scene, extracting forensic evidence to make a case about the lifecycle of a GRB progenitor. This chapter discusses local-, galactic-, and universal-scale observations of GRBs.
Joshua S. Bloom
- Published in print:
- 2011
- Published Online:
- October 2017
- ISBN:
- 9780691145570
- eISBN:
- 9781400837007
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Princeton University Press
- DOI:
- 10.23943/princeton/9780691145570.003.0005
- Subject:
- Physics, Particle Physics / Astrophysics / Cosmology
This chapter discusses the object or objects responsible for gramma-ray bursts (GRBs). Until now, there are few absolute certainties with regard to the progenitors of GRBs. One clear standout is the ...
More
This chapter discusses the object or objects responsible for gramma-ray bursts (GRBs). Until now, there are few absolute certainties with regard to the progenitors of GRBs. One clear standout is the progenitors of soft gamma-ray repeaters (SGRs) which are very obviously neutron stars. There are a number of corroborating lines of evidence for this progenitor association: (1) some well-localized SGRs are associated with supernova remnants, suggesting they are byproducts of recent supernovae; (2) there is quiescent X-ray emission from the sites of SGRs, similar to a class of neutron stars called “anomalous X-ray pulsars”; (3) Galactic SGRs tend to be found in the Galactic plane, where most young neutron stars reside; and (4) the ringdown emission after SGR pulses is periodic, with periods comparable to that of slowly rotating neutron stars (few seconds).Less
This chapter discusses the object or objects responsible for gramma-ray bursts (GRBs). Until now, there are few absolute certainties with regard to the progenitors of GRBs. One clear standout is the progenitors of soft gamma-ray repeaters (SGRs) which are very obviously neutron stars. There are a number of corroborating lines of evidence for this progenitor association: (1) some well-localized SGRs are associated with supernova remnants, suggesting they are byproducts of recent supernovae; (2) there is quiescent X-ray emission from the sites of SGRs, similar to a class of neutron stars called “anomalous X-ray pulsars”; (3) Galactic SGRs tend to be found in the Galactic plane, where most young neutron stars reside; and (4) the ringdown emission after SGR pulses is periodic, with periods comparable to that of slowly rotating neutron stars (few seconds).
V. E. Fortov, I. T. Iakubov, and A. G. Khrapak
- Published in print:
- 2006
- Published Online:
- September 2007
- ISBN:
- 9780199299805
- eISBN:
- 9780191714948
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199299805.003.0011
- Subject:
- Physics, Nuclear and Plasma Physics
This chapter discusses the physics of complex (dusty) plasmas — low-temperature plasmas containing charged microparticles — and the major types of experimental dusty plasmas. Various elementary ...
More
This chapter discusses the physics of complex (dusty) plasmas — low-temperature plasmas containing charged microparticles — and the major types of experimental dusty plasmas. Various elementary processes, including grain charging in different regimes, interaction between charged particles, and momentum exchange between different species are investigated. The major forces on microparticles and features of the particle dynamics in dusty plasmas are described. An overview of the wave properties in different phase states, as well as results on the phase transitions between different crystalline and liquid states are presented. Special attention is given to “crystallization” of dusty plasmas. Results of investigations of dusty plasmas under microgravity conditions are discussed in detail. Properties of plasmas with nonspherical particles are considered. Possible applications of dusty plasmas and new directions in experimental research are considered.Less
This chapter discusses the physics of complex (dusty) plasmas — low-temperature plasmas containing charged microparticles — and the major types of experimental dusty plasmas. Various elementary processes, including grain charging in different regimes, interaction between charged particles, and momentum exchange between different species are investigated. The major forces on microparticles and features of the particle dynamics in dusty plasmas are described. An overview of the wave properties in different phase states, as well as results on the phase transitions between different crystalline and liquid states are presented. Special attention is given to “crystallization” of dusty plasmas. Results of investigations of dusty plasmas under microgravity conditions are discussed in detail. Properties of plasmas with nonspherical particles are considered. Possible applications of dusty plasmas and new directions in experimental research are considered.
David Freestone and Charlotte Streck (eds)
- Published in print:
- 2009
- Published Online:
- February 2010
- ISBN:
- 9780199565931
- eISBN:
- 9780191722028
- Item type:
- book
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199565931.001.0001
- Subject:
- Law, Environmental and Energy Law, Private International Law
Since 2005, the carbon market has grown to a value of nearly $100 billion per annum. This book examines all the main legal and policy issues which are raised by emissions trading and carbon finance. ...
More
Since 2005, the carbon market has grown to a value of nearly $100 billion per annum. This book examines all the main legal and policy issues which are raised by emissions trading and carbon finance. It covers not only the Kyoto Flexibility Mechanisms but also the regional emission trading scheme in the EU and emerging schemes in the US, Australia, and New Zealand. The Parties to the 1992 UN Framework Convention are in the process of negotiating a successor regime to the 1997 Kyoto Protocol whose first commitment period ends in 2012. As scientists predict that the threat of dangerous climate change requires much more radical mitigation actions, the negotiations aim for a more comprehensive and wide ranging agreement which includes new players — such as the US — as well as taking account of new sources (such as aircraft emissions) and new mechanisms such as the creation of incentives for reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation.Less
Since 2005, the carbon market has grown to a value of nearly $100 billion per annum. This book examines all the main legal and policy issues which are raised by emissions trading and carbon finance. It covers not only the Kyoto Flexibility Mechanisms but also the regional emission trading scheme in the EU and emerging schemes in the US, Australia, and New Zealand. The Parties to the 1992 UN Framework Convention are in the process of negotiating a successor regime to the 1997 Kyoto Protocol whose first commitment period ends in 2012. As scientists predict that the threat of dangerous climate change requires much more radical mitigation actions, the negotiations aim for a more comprehensive and wide ranging agreement which includes new players — such as the US — as well as taking account of new sources (such as aircraft emissions) and new mechanisms such as the creation of incentives for reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation.
Richard W. Miller
- Published in print:
- 2010
- Published Online:
- May 2010
- ISBN:
- 9780199581986
- eISBN:
- 9780191723247
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199581986.003.0005
- Subject:
- Philosophy, Moral Philosophy, Philosophy of Mind
Coping with harmful side‐effects of legitimate activities is a central aspect of moral responsibility in global interactions, epitomized in containment of climate harms due to greenhouse gas ...
More
Coping with harmful side‐effects of legitimate activities is a central aspect of moral responsibility in global interactions, epitomized in containment of climate harms due to greenhouse gas emissions. This chapter argues that ordinary values of trust and trusteeship that guide compatriots' responses to their interactions also make a model of fair teamwork the fundamental moral guide to coping with the process of global warming. Accounting for what is valid in demands for special concern for the poor, compensation for pollution and equal per capita emissions rights, this approach favors the regime with the impartially preferable allocation of climate burdens: burdens from unmitigated climate harms and from reduced economic opportunities due either to reduced emissions or to reduced access to the global atmospheric sink. The resulting standard of equity puts the brunt of emissions reductions on developed countries. The resulting standard of adequacy requires severe emissions cuts, posing significant risks of economic loss, to guard against risks of climate catastrophe.Less
Coping with harmful side‐effects of legitimate activities is a central aspect of moral responsibility in global interactions, epitomized in containment of climate harms due to greenhouse gas emissions. This chapter argues that ordinary values of trust and trusteeship that guide compatriots' responses to their interactions also make a model of fair teamwork the fundamental moral guide to coping with the process of global warming. Accounting for what is valid in demands for special concern for the poor, compensation for pollution and equal per capita emissions rights, this approach favors the regime with the impartially preferable allocation of climate burdens: burdens from unmitigated climate harms and from reduced economic opportunities due either to reduced emissions or to reduced access to the global atmospheric sink. The resulting standard of equity puts the brunt of emissions reductions on developed countries. The resulting standard of adequacy requires severe emissions cuts, posing significant risks of economic loss, to guard against risks of climate catastrophe.
Alan Corney
- Published in print:
- 2006
- Published Online:
- September 2007
- ISBN:
- 9780199211456
- eISBN:
- 9780191705915
- Item type:
- book
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199211456.001.0001
- Subject:
- Physics, Atomic, Laser, and Optical Physics
This book gives an account of the progress that has been made in the fields of atomic physics and laser spectroscopy during the last fifty years. The first five chapters prepare the foundations of ...
More
This book gives an account of the progress that has been made in the fields of atomic physics and laser spectroscopy during the last fifty years. The first five chapters prepare the foundations of atomic physics, classical electro-magnetism, and quantum mechanics, which are necessary for an understanding of the interaction of electromagnetic radiation with free atoms. The application of these concepts to processes involving the spontaneous emission of radiation is then developed in Chapters 6, 7, and 8, while stimulated emission and the properties of gas and tunable dye lasers form the subject matter of Chapters 9 to 14. The last four chapters are concerned with the physics and applications of atomic resonance fluorescence, optical double-resonance, optical pumping, and atomic beam magnetic resonance.Less
This book gives an account of the progress that has been made in the fields of atomic physics and laser spectroscopy during the last fifty years. The first five chapters prepare the foundations of atomic physics, classical electro-magnetism, and quantum mechanics, which are necessary for an understanding of the interaction of electromagnetic radiation with free atoms. The application of these concepts to processes involving the spontaneous emission of radiation is then developed in Chapters 6, 7, and 8, while stimulated emission and the properties of gas and tunable dye lasers form the subject matter of Chapters 9 to 14. The last four chapters are concerned with the physics and applications of atomic resonance fluorescence, optical double-resonance, optical pumping, and atomic beam magnetic resonance.
Passero Michelle
- Published in print:
- 2009
- Published Online:
- February 2010
- ISBN:
- 9780199565931
- eISBN:
- 9780191722028
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199565931.003.0023
- Subject:
- Law, Environmental and Energy Law, Private International Law
Over the past several years, transactions for the voluntary purchase and sale of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions reductions have grown significantly. Also known as the ‘voluntary carbon market’, this ...
More
Over the past several years, transactions for the voluntary purchase and sale of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions reductions have grown significantly. Also known as the ‘voluntary carbon market’, this market has provided a benefit to the climate by building public awareness and infrastructure for transactions and informing government climate policy. This chapter begins with a background on the voluntary carbon market — what it is and the reasons for its growth. It elaborates on the contribution of the voluntary market including the development of GHG reduction accounting standards, registries and policy. It then discusses the additional actions that could be taken in this respect, and identifies the potential need to clarify the legal nature of reductions in the voluntary market.Less
Over the past several years, transactions for the voluntary purchase and sale of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions reductions have grown significantly. Also known as the ‘voluntary carbon market’, this market has provided a benefit to the climate by building public awareness and infrastructure for transactions and informing government climate policy. This chapter begins with a background on the voluntary carbon market — what it is and the reasons for its growth. It elaborates on the contribution of the voluntary market including the development of GHG reduction accounting standards, registries and policy. It then discusses the additional actions that could be taken in this respect, and identifies the potential need to clarify the legal nature of reductions in the voluntary market.
Christiana Figueres and Charlotte Streck
- Published in print:
- 2009
- Published Online:
- February 2010
- ISBN:
- 9780199565931
- eISBN:
- 9780191722028
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199565931.003.0026
- Subject:
- Law, Environmental and Energy Law, Private International Law
Despite the many calls to reform the flexibility mechanisms of the Kyoto Protocol, their conceptual underpinnings are strong and it is likely that the idea of the mechanisms, in fact the mechanisms ...
More
Despite the many calls to reform the flexibility mechanisms of the Kyoto Protocol, their conceptual underpinnings are strong and it is likely that the idea of the mechanisms, in fact the mechanisms themselves, will survive in a post-2012 climate regime. This chapter examines how a post-2012 climate treaty could provide incentives for greater emission reductions in developing countries. It starts by summarizing the current frustrations with the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) and reviewing incremental modifications that could be considered to strengthen the mechanism without requiring a decision of the parties to the Kyoto Protocol or changes to the Marrakech Accords. It then explores a potential post-2012 scenario that combines three possible financial mechanisms to promote large-scale mitigation in developing countries: the activity-based CDM as we know it, albeit improved; a second market mechanism which would seek to improve the long-term emission trends of developing countries; and a third, non-market-based financial mechanism which would follow a scheme of payment that is not commoditized and does not create international offsets.Less
Despite the many calls to reform the flexibility mechanisms of the Kyoto Protocol, their conceptual underpinnings are strong and it is likely that the idea of the mechanisms, in fact the mechanisms themselves, will survive in a post-2012 climate regime. This chapter examines how a post-2012 climate treaty could provide incentives for greater emission reductions in developing countries. It starts by summarizing the current frustrations with the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) and reviewing incremental modifications that could be considered to strengthen the mechanism without requiring a decision of the parties to the Kyoto Protocol or changes to the Marrakech Accords. It then explores a potential post-2012 scenario that combines three possible financial mechanisms to promote large-scale mitigation in developing countries: the activity-based CDM as we know it, albeit improved; a second market mechanism which would seek to improve the long-term emission trends of developing countries; and a third, non-market-based financial mechanism which would follow a scheme of payment that is not commoditized and does not create international offsets.
