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This chapter examines whether it has become easier or more difficult for political parties to participate in elections. It does this by comparing the electoral systems and the wider electoral laws (including those governing ballot access, media access, and the receipt of state subventions) in operation in a number of OECD countries in 1960 to those in operation in 2000. While it finds there has been little electoral system change over this period, it does report evidence of changes in the wider electoral laws, the general evolution of which appears to have been towards a more liberal environment for all political parties. This does not necessarily mean an easier time for small or new parties, however, and may instead suggest a type of cartelization between the established parties.

The Eastern enlargement of the European Union (EU) raised the issue as to what extent the new member states would follow in the policy footsteps of the old member states rather than taking the United States as their role model. Drawing a polemical distinction between “old” and “new Europe”, a former U.S. secretary of defense suggested that the Central and Eastern European countries might adhere more closely to the United States as the superpower that helped end their dependence upon the Soviet Empire. This chapter examines to what extent patterns of political participation differ between the United States and Europe, and where exactly the new member states fit in this comparison. It shows that electoral turnout is higher and less socially skewed in Western Europe than in the United States. The higher inclusiveness of the (Western) European State(s) fosters political integration and the equality of electoral participation. Differences between Europe and America diminish considerably when the analysis is confined to the pensioner generation, whose integration into welfare state schemes is largely similar on both sides of the Atlantic.

Electoral institutions shape the potential costs and benefits of participation. This chapter argues that their effect on voter turnout is indirect by shaping the variety and stability of choices available to voters. Specifically, electoral institutions can produce political conditions that pull citizens into the democratic process by making voting meaningful, but that also push away those predisposed to abstain. The chapter's analysis of data from thirty-one contemporary democracies collected by the Comparative Study of Electoral Systems project suggest that party system polarization powerfully influences voter engagement, and that these effects are contingent on a citizen's sense of external efficacy. Citizens who feel that voting matters and that who is in power makes a difference are more likely to vote if they live in countries where parties present more polarized policy profiles. By contrast, those who are less efficacious are substantially less likely to vote if the party system is more polarized.

This chapter on elections and electoral systems in Morocco follows the same format as all the other country chapters in the book. The first section is introductory and contains a historical overview, discussion of the evolution of electoral provisions, an account of the current electoral provisions, and a comment on the electoral statistics. The second section consists of ten tables. These are: 2.1 Dates of National Elections, Referendums, and Coups d’Etat (there have been no coups d’état); 2.2 Electoral Body 1962–1997 (data on population size, registered voters, and votes cast); 2.3 Abbreviations (abbreviations and full names of political parties and alliances used in tables 2.6, 2.7, and 2.9); 2.4 Electoral Participation of Parties and Alliances 1963–1997 (participation of political parties and alliances in chronological order and including the years and number of contested elections); 2.5 Referendums 1962–1996 (details of registered voters and votes cast); 2.6 Elections for Constitutional Assembly (none held); 2.7 Parliamentary Elections 1963–1997 (details of registered voters and votes cast); 2.8 Composition of Parliament 1963–1997; 2.9 Presidential Elections (none held as Morocco is a constitutional monarchy); and 2.10 List of Power Holders 1961–1998.

This chapter on elections and electoral systems in Côte d’Ivoire follows the same format as all the other country chapters in the book. The first section is introductory and contains a historical overview, discussion of the evolution of electoral provisions, an account of the current electoral provisions, and a comment on the electoral statistics. The second section consists of ten tables. These are: 2.1 Dates of National Elections, Referendums, and Coups d’Etat (there have been no referendums or coups d’état); 2.2 Electoral Body 1959–1995 (data on population size, registered voters, and votes cast); 2.3 Abbreviations (abbreviations and full names of political parties and alliances used in tables 2.6, 2.7, and 2.9); 2.4 Electoral Participation of Parties and Alliances 1959–1995 (participation of political parties and alliances in chronological order and including the years and number of contested elections); 2.5/2.6 Referendums/Elections for Constitutional Assembly (none held); 2.7 Parliamentary Elections 1959–1995 (details of registered voters and votes cast); 2.8 Composition of Parliament 1959–1995; 2.9 Presidential Elections 1960–1995 (details of registered voters and votes cast); and 2.10 List of Power Holders 1960–1998.

This chapter on elections and electoral systems in Senegal follows the same format as all the other country chapters in the book. The first section is introductory and contains a historical overview, discussion of the evolution of electoral provisions, an account of the current electoral provisions, and a comment on the electoral statistics. The second section consists of ten tables. These are: 2.1 Dates of National Elections, Referendums, and Coups d’Etat (there have been no coups d’état); 2.2 Electoral Body 1958–1998 (data on population size, registered voters, and votes cast); 2.3 Abbreviations (abbreviations and full names of political parties and alliances used in tables 2.6, 2.7, and 2.9); 2.4 Electoral Participation of Parties and Alliances 1959–1998 (participation of political parties and alliances in chronological order and including the years and number of contested elections); 2.5 Referendums 1958–1970 (details of registered voters and votes cast); 2.6 Elections for Constitutional Assembly (none held); 2.7 Parliamentary Elections 1959–1998 (details of registered voters and votes cast, nationally and regionally); 2.8 Composition of Parliament 1963–1998; 2.9 Presidential Elections 1963–1993 (details of registered voters and votes cast, nationally and regionally); and 2.10 List of Power Holders 1960–1998.

This chapter on elections and electoral systems in Zimbabwe follows the same format as all the other country chapters in the book. The first section is introductory and contains a historical overview, discussion of the evolution of electoral provisions, an account of the current electoral provisions, and a comment on the electoral statistics. The second section consists of ten tables. These are: 2.1 Dates of National Elections, Referendums, and Coups d’Etat (there have been no referendums or coups d’état); 2.2 Electoral Body 1980–1996 (data on population size, registered voters, and votes cast); 2.3 Abbreviations (abbreviations and full names of political parties and alliances used in tables 2.6, 2.7, and 2.9); 2.4 Electoral Participation of Parties and Alliances 1980–1996 (participation of political parties and alliances in chronological order and including the years and number of contested elections); 2.5 Referendums (none held); 2.6 Elections for Constitutional Assembly (none held); 2.7 Parliamentary Elections 1980–1995 (details of registered voters and votes cast); 2.8 Composition of Parliament 1980–1995; 2.9 Presidential Elections 1990–1996 (details of registered voters and votes cast); and 2.10 List of Power Holders 1980–1998.

This chapter on elections and electoral systems in Algeria follows the same format as all the other country chapters in the book. The first section is introductory and contains a historical overview, discussion of the evolution of electoral provisions, an account of the current electoral provisions, and a comment on the electoral statistics. The second section consists of ten tables. These are: 2.1 Dates of National Elections, Referendums, and Coups d’Etat; 2.2 Electoral Body 1962–1997 (data on population size, registered voters, and votes cast); 2.3 Abbreviations (abbreviations and full names of political parties and alliances used in tables 2.6, 2.7 and 2.9); 2.4 Electoral Participation of Parties and Alliances 1962–1997 (participation of political parties and alliances in chronological order and including the years and number of contested elections); 2.5 Referendums 1962–1996 (details of registered voters and votes cast); 2.6 Elections for Constitutional Assembly 1962 (details of registered voters and votes cast); 2.7 Parliamentary Elections 1964–1997 (details of registered voters and votes cast); 2.8 Composition of Parliament 1964–1997; 2.9 Presidential Elections 1963–1995 (details of registered voters and votes cast); and 2.10 List of Power Holders 1962–1998.

This chapter on elections and electoral systems in Botswana follows the same format as all the other country chapters in the book. The first section is introductory and contains a historical overview, discussion of the evolution of electoral provisions, an account of the current electoral provisions, and a comment on the electoral statistics. The second section consists of ten tables. These are: 2.1 Dates of National Elections, Referendums, and Coups d’Etat (there have been no coups d’états); 2.2 Electoral Body 1965–1994 (data on population size, registered voters, and votes cast); 2.3 Abbreviations (abbreviations and full names of political parties and alliances used in tables 2.6, 2.7 and 2.9); 2.4 Electoral Participation of Parties and Alliances 1965–1994 (participation of political parties and alliances in chronological order and including the years and number of contested elections); 2.5 Referendums 1987–1997 (details of registered voters and votes cast); 2.6 Elections for Constitutional Assembly (details of registered voters and votes cast); 2.7 Parliamentary Elections 1965–1994 (details of registered voters and votes cast); 2.8 Composition of Parliament 1965–1994; 2.9 Presidential Elections (election is only indirect: the candidate who commands the support of more than one half of the newly elected members of the National Assembly is declared President); and 2.10 List of Power Holders 1966–1998.

This chapter on elections and electoral systems in Congo (Democratic Republic) follows the same format as all the other country chapters in the book. The first section is introductory and contains a historical overview, discussion of the evolution of electoral provisions, an account of the current electoral provisions (suspended), and a comment on the electoral statistics. The second section consists of ten tables. These are: 2.1 Dates of National Elections, Referendums, and Coups d’Etat; 2.2 Electoral Body 1960–1987 (data on population size, registered voters, and votes cast); 2.3 Abbreviations (abbreviations and full names of political parties and alliances used in tables 2.6, 2.7, and 2.9); 2.4 Electoral Participation of Parties and Alliances 1960–1987 (participation of political parties and alliances in chronological order and including the years and number of contested elections); 2.5 Referendums 1964–1967 (details of registered voters and votes cast); 2.6 Elections for Constitutional Assembly (none held); 2.7 Parliamentary Elections 1960–1977 (details of registered voters and votes cast); 2.8 Composition of Parliament 1960–1987; 2.9 Presidential Elections 1970–1984 (details of registered voters and votes cast); and 2.10 List of Power Holders 1960–1997.

This chapter on elections and electoral systems in Djibouti follows the same format as all the other country chapters in the book. The first section is introductory and contains a historical overview, discussion of the evolution of electoral provisions, an account of the current electoral provisions, and a comment on the electoral statistics. The second section consists of ten tables. These are: 2.1 Dates of National Elections, Referendums, and Coups d’Etat (there have been no coups d’état); 2.2 Electoral Body 1967–1997 (data on population size, registered voters, and votes cast); 2.3 Abbreviations (abbreviations and full names of political parties and alliances used in tables 2.6, 2.7, and 2.9); 2.4 Electoral Participation of Parties and Alliances 1977–1997 (participation of political parties and alliances in chronological order and including the years and number of contested elections); 2.5 Referendums 1967 and 1977 (details of registered voters and votes cast); 2.6 Elections for Constitutional Assembly (none held); 2.7 Parliamentary Elections 1973–1997 (details of registered voters and votes cast nationally and regionally); 2.8 Composition of Parliament 1977–1997; 2.9 Presidential Elections 1981–1993 (details of registered voters and votes cast); and 2.10 List of Power Holders 1977–1998.

This chapter on elections and electoral systems in Egypt follows the same format as all the other country chapters in the book. The first section is introductory and contains a historical overview, discussion of the evolution of electoral provisions, an account of the current electoral provisions, and a comment on the electoral statistics. The second section consists of ten tables. These are: 2.1 Dates of National Elections, Referendums, and Coups d’Etat; 2.2 Electoral Body 1950–1995 (data on population size, registered voters, and votes cast); 2.3 Abbreviations (abbreviations and full names of political parties and alliances used in tables 2.6, 2.7, and 2.9); 2.4 Electoral Participation of Parties and Alliances 1950–1995 (participation of political parties and alliances in chronological order and including the years and number of contested elections); 2.5 Referendums 1956–1990 (details of registered voters and votes cast); 2.6 Elections for Constitutional Assembly (the National Assembly elected in 1974 was to act as a Constitutional Assembly); 2.7 Parliamentary Elections 1984 and 1987 (details of registered voters and votes cast); 2.8 Composition of Parliament 1950–1995; 2.9 Presidential Referendums 1956–1993 (details of registered voters and votes cast); and 2.10 List of Power Holders 1953–1998.

This chapter on elections and electoral systems in Gabon follows the same format as all the other country chapters in the book. The first section is introductory and contains a historical overview, discussion of the evolution of electoral provisions, an account of the current electoral provisions, and a comment on the electoral statistics. The second section consists of ten tables. These are: 2.1 Dates of National Elections, Referendums, and Coups d’Etat; 2.2 Electoral Body 1957–1996 (data on population size, registered voters, and votes cast); 2.3 Abbreviations (abbreviations and full names of political parties and alliances used in tables 2.6, 2.7, and 2.9); 2.4 Electoral Participation of Parties and Alliances 1957–1998 (participation of political parties and alliances in chronological order and including the years and number of contested elections); 2.5 Referendums 1958 and 1995 (details of registered voters and votes cast); 2.6 Elections for Constitutional Assembly (none held); 2.7 Parliamentary Elections 1957–1996 (details of registered voters and votes cast); 2.8 Composition of Parliament 1957–1996 (including details of elected candidates per province in 1996); 2.9 Presidential Elections 1961–1998 (details of registered voters and votes cast); and 2.10 List of Power Holders 1960–1998.

This chapter on elections and electoral systems in Ghana follows the same format as all the other country chapters in the book. The first section is introductory and contains a historical overview, discussion of the evolution of electoral provisions, an account of the current electoral provisions, and a comment on the electoral statistics. The second section consists of ten tables. These are: 2.1 Dates of National Elections, Referendums, and Coups d’Etat; 2.2 Electoral Body 1956–1996 (data on population size, registered voters, and votes cast); 2.3 Abbreviations (abbreviations and full names of political parties and alliances used in tables 2.6, 2.7, and 2.9); 2.4 Electoral Participation of Parties and Alliances 1956–1996 (participation of political parties and alliances in chronological order and including the years and number of contested elections); 2.5 Referendums 1956–1992 (details of registered voters and votes cast); 2.6 Elections for Constitutional Assembly (none held); 2.7 Parliamentary Elections 1956–1996 (details of registered voters and votes cast); 2.8 Composition of Parliament 1956–1996 (including national and regional distribution of seats); 2.9 Presidential Elections 1979–1996 (details of registered voters and votes cast nationally and regionally); and 2.10 List of Power Holders 1957–1998.

This chapter on elections and electoral systems in Mali follows the same format as all the other country chapters in the book. The first section is introductory and contains a historical overview, discussion of the evolution of electoral provisions, an account of the current electoral provisions, and a comment on the electoral statistics. The second section consists of ten tables. These are: 2.1 Dates of National Elections, Referendums, and Coups d’Etat; 2.2 Electoral Body 1957–1997 (data on population size, registered voters, and votes cast); 2.3 Abbreviations (abbreviations and full names of political parties and alliances used in tables 2.6, 2.7, and 2.9); 2.4 Electoral Participation of Parties and Alliances 1957–1997 (participation of political parties and alliances in chronological order and including the years and number of contested elections); 2.5 Referendums 1974 and 1992 (details of registered voters and votes cast); 2.6 Elections for Constitutional Assembly (none held); 2.7 Parliamentary Elections 1957–1997 (details of registered voters and votes cast); 2.8 Composition of Parliament 1957–1997; 2.9 Presidential Elections 1979–1997 (details of registered voters and votes cast); and 2.10 List of Power Holders 1960–1998.

This chapter on elections and electoral systems in Seychelles follows the same format as all the other country chapters in the book. The first section is introductory and contains a historical overview, discussion of the evolution of electoral provisions, an account of the current electoral provisions, and a comment on the electoral statistics. The second section consists of ten tables. These are: 2.1 Dates of National Elections, Referendums, and Coups d’Etat; 2.2 Electoral Body 1974–1998 (data on population size, registered voters, and votes cast); 2.3 Abbreviations (abbreviations and full names of political parties and alliances used in tables 2.6, 2.7, and 2.9); 2.4 Electoral Participation of Parties and Alliances 1974–1998 (participation of political parties and alliances in chronological order and including the years and number of contested elections); 2.5 Referendums 1992 and 1993 (details of registered voters and votes cast); 2.6 Elections for Constitutional Assembly 1992 (details of registered voters and votes cast); 2.7 Parliamentary Elections 1974–1998 (details of registered voters and votes cast); 2.8 Composition of Parliament 1974–1998; 2.9 Presidential Elections 1979–1998 (details of registered voters and votes cast); and 2.10 List of Power Holders 1976–1998.

This chapter on elections and electoral systems in South Africa follows the same format as all the other country chapters in the book. The first section is introductory and contains a historical overview, discussion of the evolution of electoral provisions, an account of the current electoral provisions, and a comment on the electoral statistics. The second section consists of ten tables. These are: 2.1 Dates of National Elections, Referendums, and Coups d’Etat (there have been no coups d’état); 2.2 Electoral Body 1910–1994 (data on population size, registered voters, and votes cast); 2.3 Abbreviations (abbreviations and full names of political parties and alliances used in tables 2.6, 2.7, and 2.9); 2.4 Electoral Participation of Parties and Alliances 1910–1994 (participation of political parties and alliances in chronological order and including the years and number of contested elections); 2.5 Referendums 1960–1992 (details of registered voters and votes cast); 2.6 Elections for Constitutional Assembly 1994 (details of registered voters and votes cast); 2.7 Parliamentary Elections 1910–1989 (details of registered voters and votes cast); 2.8 Composition of Parliament 1910–1989; 2.9 Presidential Elections (none held); and 2.10 List of Power Holders 1910–1994.

TogoThis chapter on elections and electoral systems in Togo follows the same format as all the other country chapters in the book. The first section is introductory and contains a historical overview, discussion of the evolution of electoral provisions, an account of the current electoral provisions, and a comment on the electoral statistics. The second section consists of ten tables. These are: 2.1 Dates of National Elections, Referendums, and Coups d’Etat; 2.2 Electoral Body 1958–1998 (data on population size, registered voters, and votes cast); 2.3 Abbreviations (abbreviations and full names of political parties and alliances used in tables 2.6, 2.7, and 2.9); 2.4 Electoral Participation of Parties and Alliances 1958–1998 (participation of political parties and alliances in chronological order and including the years and number of contested elections); 2.5 Referendums 1961–1992 (details of registered voters and votes cast); 2.6 Elections for Constitutional Assembly (none held); 2.7 Parliamentary Elections 1958–1997 (details of registered voters and votes cast); 2.8 Composition of Parliament 1958–1994; 2.9 Presidential Elections 1961–1998 (details of registered voters and votes cast); and 2.10 List of Power Holders 1960–1998.

This chapter on elections and electoral systems in Tunisia follows the same format as all the other country chapters in the book. The first section is introductory and contains a historical overview, discussion of the evolution of electoral provisions, an account of the current electoral provisions, and a comment on the electoral statistics. The second section consists of ten tables. These are: 2.1 Dates of National Elections, Referendums, and Coups d’Etat (there have been no referendums or coups d’état); 2.2 Electoral Body 1956–1994 (data on population size, registered voters, and votes cast); 2.3 Abbreviations (abbreviations and full names of political parties and alliances used in tables 2.6, 2.7, and 2.9); 2.4 Electoral Participation of Parties and Alliances 1956–1994 (participation of political parties and alliances in chronological order and including the years and number of contested elections); 2.5 Referendums (none held); 2.6 Elections for Constitutional Assembly 1956 (details of registered voters and votes cast); 2.7 Parliamentary Elections 1959–1994 (details of registered voters and votes cast); 2.8 Composition of Parliament 1959–1994; 2.9 Presidential Elections 1959–1994 (details of registered voters and votes cast); and 2.10 List of Power Holders 1956–1998.