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Calvin the Compatibilist

Paul Helm

in Calvin at the Centre

Although Calvin does not avow compatibilism in so many words, his views on providence and predestination, as well as his doctrine of the bondage of the will to sin and the need for efficacious grace, ... More

Although Calvin does not avow compatibilism in so many words, his views on providence and predestination, as well as his doctrine of the bondage of the will to sin and the need for efficacious grace, fit snugly with compatibilism. Calvin is also a resolute opponent of ‘Stoic fate’, arguing that in that scheme God himself is subject to fate. Nevertheless, there is some historical evidence (via Calvin's reading of Cicero and of Augustine) but also considerable evidence in terms of the coincidence of his ideas, that when he considers human action he thinks like a Stoic. Stoic views are explored at some length, and the points of coincidence established; for example, the idea of the locus of responsibility being the human person; his use of the ‘lazy argument’; and more generally the causal interconnection of means and ends. But there are also elements of ‘hard determinism’ in Calvin's views, notably in the area of the reception of divine grace. For, while a person is to be blamed for his sins, only God is to be praised for any gracious action.Less

The ‘House of Nanak’—An Expression of Divine Grace: Guru Ram Das

J.S. Grewal

in History, Literature, and Identity: Four Centuries of Sikh Tradition

Guru Ram Das’s bānī is incorporated in the Gurū Granth Sāhib in thirty Rāgs, in addition to the Rahirās and the Kīrtan Sohilā. His composition contains metaphors and similes, many of which relate to ... More

Guru Ram Das’s bānī is incorporated in the Gurū Granth Sāhib in thirty Rāgs, in addition to the Rahirās and the Kīrtan Sohilā. His composition contains metaphors and similes, many of which relate to his physical, social, economic, political and cultural environment. Some of the important metaphors in the bānī of Guru Ram Das pertain to socio-religious life, the ceremonies of betrothal and marriage, the dowry, and the bridal bed. Guru Ram Das’s theology is essentially the same as that of Guru Nanak. There are numerous references to the Gursikh in the bānī of Guru Ram Das, with the Sikhs portrayed as having love of God in their hearts. There are also references to the sangat of sants or sādhs. The whole dispensation of the House of Guru Nanak is apparently an expression of the divine order and divine grace.Less

Deathbeds: Tokenography and the Science of Dying Well

Sarah Rivett

in The Science of the Soul in Colonial New England

This chapter presents deathbed testimonies containing evidence of faith. Ministers and laypeople tried to capture the essence of divine revelation in the moment before death, especially those of ... More

This chapter presents deathbed testimonies containing evidence of faith. Ministers and laypeople tried to capture the essence of divine revelation in the moment before death, especially those of women, of divine transition from death to life, from the visible to the invisible world, from the dark glass of limited perception to unfiltered revelation—and the promise of redemption that it held for the “meanest and lowest earthen vessels.” During this time, Richard Saunders's View of the Soul and Thomas Willis's Two Discourses concerning the Soul unearth the observational capacities needed to watch the actions of the spirit recorded in the dying person's optic nerve.Less

Discerning Women

in Believe Not Every Spirit: Possession, Mysticism, & Discernment in Early Modern Catholicism

In early modern Europe, the guides for exorcists and the manuals for the discernment of spirits were addressed strictly to male clerics—theologians, Inquisitors, and exorcists. Their descriptions of ... More

In early modern Europe, the guides for exorcists and the manuals for the discernment of spirits were addressed strictly to male clerics—theologians, Inquisitors, and exorcists. Their descriptions of discerning activities, just like their instructions concerning the performance of exorcism, assumed the familiarity of the practitioner with specific bodies of knowledge, among them the structure of the soul, the multiple names or residences of demons and their history, and chapters in Satan's permanent struggle to deceive humans. But the fact that most of the literature about exorcism and discernment was written by and for male clerics should not distract us from remembering that discernment of spirits was a divine grace, one of the seven gifts. Discernment of spirits, just like exorcism, was always a social praxis and not merely an abstract theological enterprise. Women's practices of discernment were restricted by their self-doubts, their discretion, and their careful avoidance of crossing an invisible line and stepping into the domain of male clerics.Less

Introduction

Bridget Morris (ed.)

in The Revelations of St. Birgitta of Sweden: Volume II: Liber Caelestis, Books IV–V

Book V, also known as the Liber Quaestionum (The Book of Questions), comprises sixteen “interrogations,” each divided into questions and answers, and a number of separate “revelations” that are ... More

Book V, also known as the Liber Quaestionum (The Book of Questions), comprises sixteen “interrogations,” each divided into questions and answers, and a number of separate “revelations” that are interspersed among them. This apparently scholastic debate raises a number of theological issues, such as the created order of the world, natural theology, Christology and aspects of the Incarnation, and the justice of God's providence and divine grace. The introduction to Book V examines some of the themes of individual skepticism, the quest for theological understanding, and intellectual arrogance. It also discusses the identity of the monk-on-the-ladder and considers the role of the interspersed revelations in the book.Less

Erasmus vs. Luther: Philo-logos vs. Faith

John H. Smith

in Dialogues between Faith and Reason: The Death and Return of God in Modern German Thought

This chapter focuses on the debate between Desiderius Erasmus of Rotterdam (1466–1536) and Martin Luther (1483–1546) over the status of the free will. Erasmus claimed that the actions of human beings ... More

This chapter focuses on the debate between Desiderius Erasmus of Rotterdam (1466–1536) and Martin Luther (1483–1546) over the status of the free will. Erasmus claimed that the actions of human beings do contribute to the possibility of their eternal salvation or damnation, while Luther countered by insisting that only God's grace determines the fate of our soul. The debate highlighted competing views on biblical exegesis, the role and value of rationality and philosophy in matters relating to theology, and the very meaning of certainty (intersubjective consensus vs. personal and divinely granted faith). Erasmus and Luther also brought to the fore the opposition between “faith” and “knowledge,” or “reason” and “religion,” whether or not it can be in principle dialectically or deconstructively challenged. This chapter compares the positions of Erasmus and Luther on four major points and their implications for modern Western treatments of religion, faith, rationality, and agency: exegesis, intersubjectivity, philosophy-reason-theology, and the will's relation to divine grace.Less

Amazing Grace (How Sweet the Sound)

John Newton

in Early Evangelicalism: A Reader

This chapter presents Amazing Grace (How Sweet the Sound), a hymn composed by John Newton. Known for his preaching, Newton also devoted considerable time to writing hymns. His sermons often ... More

This chapter presents Amazing Grace (How Sweet the Sound), a hymn composed by John Newton. Known for his preaching, Newton also devoted considerable time to writing hymns. His sermons often originated from the lyrics of his hymns. In 1767, Newton collaborated with his friend William Cowper for a collection of hymns that would eventually be published as Olney Hymns two years later. In “Faith's Review and Expectation,” also known as “Amazing Grace,” he expressed his overwhelming joy for divine grace. The hymn begins with a reference to 1 Chronicles 17:16-7, which describes King David's ecstatic response to the Prophet Nathan's announcement that God promised to establish an eternal kingdom from his line.Less

The Spiritual Aspect

André Padoux

in The Hindu Tantric World: An Overview

This chapter examines the spiritual aspect of Tantra. Although Tantra is fundamentally ritualistic, it does not ignore other, more direct, ways to the divine. Devotion and mystical experience are ... More

This chapter examines the spiritual aspect of Tantra. Although Tantra is fundamentally ritualistic, it does not ignore other, more direct, ways to the divine. Devotion and mystical experience are also extolled in its literature. Tantra keeps a tradition that goes back to Vedic times alive while giving it a new life with new, often very interesting, developments. This chapter first considers the place of mysticism in ritual before discussing the link between mystical states and the yogic body. It also explains the importance of divine grace and bhakti in Tantra, along with the role of the guru in transmitting God's grace.Less

Determining Divine Grace

Sarah Osborn

in Early Evangelicalism: A Reader

This chapter presents excerpts from Sarah Osborn's The Nature, Certainty and Evidence of True Christianity. In a Letter from a Gentlewoman in New-England, to Another Her Dear Friend, in Great ... More

This chapter presents excerpts from Sarah Osborn's The Nature, Certainty and Evidence of True Christianity. In a Letter from a Gentlewoman in New-England, to Another Her Dear Friend, in Great Darkness, Doubt and Concern of a Religious Nature (1755). As a spiritual mentor and devout Christian, Osborn made a significant to evangelicalism. During her teenage years, she was captivated by the Puritan-style preaching of Nathaniel Clap, pastor of the city's First Congregational Church. After hearing the evangelical preaching of George Whitefield and Gilbert Tennent in the early 1740s, Osborn became an ardent supporter of the Great Awakening. In the wake of the revivals in Newport, she organized a women's society for the females in the First Congregational Church. In her letter The Nature, Certainty and Evidence of True Christianity, Osborn reflected on some of her former struggles while affirming her certainty of being born again as a result of divine grace.Less

Rational Hope, Moral Order, and the Revolution of the Will

Andrew Chignell

in The Divine Order, the Human Order, and the Order of Nature: Historical Perspectives

In this chapter, Andrew Chignellconsiders Kant's views on how it can be rational to hope for God's assistance in becoming morally good. If I am fully responsible for making myself good and can make ... More

In this chapter, Andrew Chignellconsiders Kant's views on how it can be rational to hope for God's assistance in becoming morally good. If I am fully responsible for making myself good and can make myself good, then my moral condition depends entirely on me. However, if my moral condition depends entirely on me, then it cannot depend on God, and it is therefore impossible for God to provide me with any assistance. But if it is impossible for God to provide me with any assistance, it is irrational for me to hope for such assistance. Chignell addresses this conundrum by providing an analysis of one necessary condition of rational hope: hope is rational only if the subject is not in a position to be certain that p is really impossible. He then offers several different strategies on which it might be rational to hope that God provides moral assistance, with the most radical of these strategies suggesting that, given our ignorance of the laws of the intelligible world, for all human beings know it is metaphysically possible that God perform a noumenal miracle on their moral character.Less

Natural versus Moral Necessity in the Will

Jonathan Edwards

in Early Evangelicalism: A Reader

This chapter presents excerpts from Jonathan Edwards's A Careful and Strict Enquiry into the Modern Prevailing Notions of That Freedom of Will, Which is Supposed to Be Essential to Moral Agency, ... More

This chapter presents excerpts from Jonathan Edwards's A Careful and Strict Enquiry into the Modern Prevailing Notions of That Freedom of Will, Which is Supposed to Be Essential to Moral Agency, V[i]rtue and Vice, Reward and Punishment, Praise and Blame (1754). Edwards had a greater impact on evangelicalism than any American theologian. In 1737, he published A Faithful Narrative of the Surprising Work of God, an account of the spiritual transformation at Northampton that began in late 1734 and lasted into the late spring of 1735. In Freedom of the Will, Edwards refuted the idea that a self-determining will could make choices irrespective of outside circumstances or motives. He introduced the concepts “moral necessity” and “natural necessity” to prove that humans are hopelessly enslaved to sin unless divine grace is given to counteract their inherent evil cravings.Less