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This chapter presents data on violence-related trauma to examine whether militarism and violence were central components of Wari imperial expansion and rule, and whether imperial authority established a Pax Wari. The author compares the heartland and hinterland communities to explore how Wari rule differentially affected rates and kinds of violence in each group. While frequencies of cranial trauma (proxy for violence) are generally similar among the three populations, the ratio of ante- and peri-mortem trauma differs at each site, as does the locational distribution of head wounds. The author thus suggests that the social context in which violence emerged was distinct at each site, and describes what those different contexts and violent acts may have been. Post-cranial trauma data is also presented to evaluate differences in physical activity and occupational practices among the three populations.

This chapter reviews all recorded evidence of trauma during the Mesolithic and Neolithic Periods in Greece due to either accidental causes or violence. It begins even earlier, with a small but important Mesolithic assemblage from Franchthi Cave. While the numbers are not large, it is interesting to note that cranial trauma is more prevalent in the Mesolithic sample than in the Late Neolithic assemblage from the same site. While a comparison of Early and Late Neolithic assemblages hints at an increased prevalence of cranial trauma over time, the difference is not statistically significant. The majority of injuries in the Neolithic show healing, leading to the conclusion that the evidence reflects sporadic, non-lethal, face-to-face confrontations between mainly young adult males, though injuries are not entirely absent on women and children. The chapter also discusses the difficulty of interpreting postcranial fractures as evidence for violent encounters.

This chapter presents the results of a study of the cranial remains of 186 individuals belonging to the Late Neolithic Wartberg Culture of central Germany. The remains came from three collective burials in North Rhine-Westphalia and Hessen, excavated between 1934 and 1993. A total of thirteen individuals (7%) presented with evidence for healed trauma whereas unhealed cranial injuries were noted on eight individuals (4.3%). Interpersonal violence appears to have been endemic and to have affected all sections of society.

This chapter reviews bone injuries detected from Late Neolithic Portuguese skeletal collections, with a focus on those that may represent cases of interpersonal violence. It discusses evidence for forty-three traumatic lesions, of which the great majority are healed cranial depressions. One of these is a trepanation apparently associated with an injury, recalling the argument that at least in some cases this procedure was carried out in order to treat head wounds. Postcrania are also considered, and one case of an embedded arrowhead provides fairly unambiguous evidence for interpersonal violence.

Patterns of cranial trauma in a skeletal series recovered from 63 well-documented Classic and Post classic period Maya sites were analyzed by examining the extent and role of violence and captive taking in the region across time. It was hypothesized that different forms of organized inter-personal violence and weaponry use should leave distinctive traces and distribution patterns in the skeletal remains. By examining urban versus rural settings, different chronological periods, and the different contexts, Vera Tiesler and Andrea Cucina illuminate the role of warrior/captive status. The analysis of the “trophy skulls” that were placed in caches, ritual trash areas and within tomb burials and those recovered from ritual depositories in sink holes are shown to be post-sacrificial. Also, both males and females showed evidence of blunt force trauma suggesting that not only males were engaged in these types of violence.

This chapter presents the results of a study on the occurrence of cranial trauma in a sub-Neolithic maritime hunter-gatherer population on the island of Gotland, in the central Baltic Sea. The material derives from cemeteries of the Pitted Ware Culture, the last hunter-gatherers of southern Scandinavia. A total of 109 adult crania were analysed (fifty-seven males and fifty-two females). Evidence for trauma was found in 14% of the males and 7.7% of the females analysed. However, with the exception of one female cranium, all showed evidence of healing.

This chapter presents the findings from three collective burial caves in central Portugal, with material spanning most of the Neolithic period, from ca. 5000 to 3000 cal BC. Sixty individuals are represented, but not all are complete and preservation is often poor. Nevertheless, seven cases of cranial trauma are reported, all showing signs of healing. All are on adults, and, where sex can be determined, all are male. There is no side preference to the location of the injuries.

This chapter presents the osteobiography of an Icelandic Viking who died of massive cranial wounds sometime between A.D. 855 and 1015. The osteobiography details the health history and cause of death of this man, and the integration of this information with the broad goals of the Mosfell Archaeological Project allows the authors to address the historicity of Icelandic sagas.

This chapter presents the results of a study of cranial trauma in the Corded Ware Culture (2700–2000 cal BC) of central Germany. The study shows that individuals exhibiting cranial injuries were predominantly males, often older adults. These individuals were often buried with stone objects, especially battle axes, which points to a rather concrete connection between the weapon and the biography of the deceased.