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This chapter on elections and electoral systems in Ghana follows the same format as all the other country chapters in the book. The first section is introductory and contains a historical overview, discussion of the evolution of electoral provisions, an account of the current electoral provisions, and a comment on the electoral statistics. The second section consists of ten tables. These are: 2.1 Dates of National Elections, Referendums, and Coups d’Etat; 2.2 Electoral Body 1956–1996 (data on population size, registered voters, and votes cast); 2.3 Abbreviations (abbreviations and full names of political parties and alliances used in tables 2.6, 2.7, and 2.9); 2.4 Electoral Participation of Parties and Alliances 1956–1996 (participation of political parties and alliances in chronological order and including the years and number of contested elections); 2.5 Referendums 1956–1992 (details of registered voters and votes cast); 2.6 Elections for Constitutional Assembly (none held); 2.7 Parliamentary Elections 1956–1996 (details of registered voters and votes cast); 2.8 Composition of Parliament 1956–1996 (including national and regional distribution of seats); 2.9 Presidential Elections 1979–1996 (details of registered voters and votes cast nationally and regionally); and 2.10 List of Power Holders 1957–1998.

This chapter on elections and electoral systems in Nigeria follows the same format as all the other country chapters in the book. The first section is introductory and contains a historical overview, discussion of the evolution of electoral provisions, an account of the current electoral provisions (the Constitution was abolished and elections annulled in 1993, although state legislature elections took place in 1997 and national parliament elections in 1998; no information was available for these) and a comment on the electoral statistics. The second section consists of ten tables. These are: 2.1 Dates of National Elections, Referendums, and Coups d’Etat (there have been no referendums); 2.2 Electoral Body 1959–1993 (data on population size, registered voters, and votes cast); 2.3 Abbreviations (abbreviations and full names of political parties and alliances used in tables 2.6, 2.7, and 2.9); 2.4 Electoral Participation of Parties and Alliances 1959–1993 (participation of political parties and alliances in chronological order and including the years and number of contested elections); 2.5 Referendums (none held); 2.6 Elections for Constitutional Assembly 1977 and 1994 (no data available); 2.7 Parliamentary Elections 1959–1962 (details of registered voters and votes cast nationally and regionally); 2.8 Composition of Parliament 1959–1992 (nationally and regionally); 2.9 Presidential Elections 1979–1993 (details of registered voters and votes cast nationally and regionally); and 2.10 List of Power Holders 1960–1998.

This chapter on elections and electoral systems in Burundi follows the same format as all the other country chapters in the book. The first section is introductory and contains a historical overview, discussion of the evolution of electoral provisions, an account of the current electoral provisions (not in force since the coup d’état of 1996), and a comment on the electoral statistics (no official data are available). The second section consists of ten tables. These are: 2.1 Dates of National Elections, Referendums, and Coups d’Etat; 2.2 Electoral Body 1961–1993 (data on population size, registered voters, and votes cast); 2.3 Abbreviations (abbreviations and full names of political parties and alliances used in tables 2.6, 2.7, and 2.9); 2.4 Electoral Participation of Parties and Alliances 1961–1993 (participation of political parties and alliances in chronological order and including the years and number of contested elections); 2.5 Referendums 1981–1992 (details of registered voters and votes cast); 2.6 Elections for Constitutional Assembly (not held); 2.7 Parliamentary Elections 1961–1993 (details of registered voters and votes cast); 2.8 Composition of Parliament 1961–1993; 2.9 Presidential Elections 1984 and 1993 (details of registered voters and votes cast nationally and regionally); and 2.10 List of Power Holders 1961–1998.

This chapter on elections and electoral systems in the Gambia follows the same format as all the other country chapters in the book. The first section is introductory and contains a historical overview, discussion of the evolution of electoral provisions, an account of the current electoral provisions, and a comment on the electoral statistics. The second section consists of ten tables. These are: 2.1 Dates of National Elections, Referendums, and Coups d’Etat; 2.2 Electoral Body 1965–1997 (data on population size, registered voters, and votes cast); 2.3 Abbreviations (abbreviations and full names of political parties and alliances used in tables 2.6, 2.7, and 2.9); 2.4 Electoral Participation of Parties and Alliances 1966–1997 (participation of political parties and alliances in chronological order and including the years and number of contested elections); 2.5 Referendums 1965 and 1970 (details of registered voters and votes cast); 2.6 Elections for Constitutional Assembly (none held); 2.7 Parliamentary Elections 1966–1997 (details of registered voters and votes cast); 2.8 Composition of Parliament 1966–1997; 2.9 Presidential Elections 1982–1996 (details of registered voters and votes cast); and 2.10 List of Power Holders 1965–1998.

This chapter on elections and electoral systems in Sierra Leone follows the same format as all the other country chapters in the book. The first section is introductory and contains a historical overview, discussion of the evolution of electoral provisions, an account of the current electoral provisions, and a comment on the electoral statistics. The second section consists of ten tables. These are: 2.1 Dates of National Elections, Referendums, and Coups d’Etat; 2.2 Electoral Body 1957–1996 (data on population size, registered voters, and votes cast); 2.3 Abbreviations (abbreviations and full names of political parties and alliances used in tables 2.6, 2.7, and 2.9); 2.4 Electoral Participation of Parties and Alliances 1957–1996 (participation of political parties and alliances in chronological order and including the years and number of contested elections); 2.5 Referendums 1978 (details of registered voters and votes cast); 2.6 Elections for Constitutional Assembly (none held); 2.7 Parliamentary Elections 1957–1996 (details of registered voters and votes cast); 2.8 Composition of Parliament 1957–1996; 2.9 Presidential Elections 1985–1996 (details of registered voters and votes cast); and 2.10 List of Power Holders 1957–1998.

This chapter develops a model of the relationship between decentralization of government and political stability, and tests it on data on coups d’état in developing countries. In the model, citizens can choose between subordinating themselves to a central government or plotting a coup. Following ideas articulated already by Machiavelli, but hitherto largely ignored, the chapter considers the role of the internal organization of government in enabling commitment to non-aggression.

This chapter on elections and electoral systems in Guinea‐Bissau follows the same format as all the other country chapters in the book. The first section is introductory and contains a historical overview, discussion of the evolution of electoral provisions, an account of the current electoral provisions, and a comment on the electoral statistics. The second section consists of ten tables. These are: 2.1 Dates of National Elections, Referendums, and Coups d’Etat (there have been no referendums); 2.2 Electoral Body 1972–1994 (data on population size, registered voters, and votes cast); 2.3 Abbreviations (abbreviations and full names of political parties and alliances used in tables 2.6, 2.7, and 2.9); 2.4 Electoral Participation of Parties and Alliances 1972–1994 (participation of political parties and alliances in chronological order and including the years and number of contested elections); 2.5 Referendums (none held); 2.6 Elections for Constitutional Assembly 1972 (details of registered voters and votes cast); 2.7 Parliamentary Elections 1976–1994 (details of registered voters and votes cast nationally and regionally); 2.8 Composition of Parliament 1976–1994; 2.9 Presidential Elections 1994 (details of registered voters and votes cast nationally and regionally); and 2.10 List of Power Holders 1973–1998.

TogoThis chapter on elections and electoral systems in Togo follows the same format as all the other country chapters in the book. The first section is introductory and contains a historical overview, discussion of the evolution of electoral provisions, an account of the current electoral provisions, and a comment on the electoral statistics. The second section consists of ten tables. These are: 2.1 Dates of National Elections, Referendums, and Coups d’Etat; 2.2 Electoral Body 1958–1998 (data on population size, registered voters, and votes cast); 2.3 Abbreviations (abbreviations and full names of political parties and alliances used in tables 2.6, 2.7, and 2.9); 2.4 Electoral Participation of Parties and Alliances 1958–1998 (participation of political parties and alliances in chronological order and including the years and number of contested elections); 2.5 Referendums 1961–1992 (details of registered voters and votes cast); 2.6 Elections for Constitutional Assembly (none held); 2.7 Parliamentary Elections 1958–1997 (details of registered voters and votes cast); 2.8 Composition of Parliament 1958–1994; 2.9 Presidential Elections 1961–1998 (details of registered voters and votes cast); and 2.10 List of Power Holders 1960–1998.

This chapter on elections and electoral systems in the Comoros follows the same format as all the other country chapters in the book. The first section is introductory and contains a historical overview, discussion of the evolution of electoral provisions, an account of the current electoral provisions, and a comment on the electoral statistics. The second section consists of ten tables. These are: 2.1 Dates of National Elections, Referendums, and Coups d’Etat; 2.2 Electoral Body 1972–1996 (data on population size, registered voters, and votes cast); 2.3 Abbreviations (abbreviations and full names of political parties and alliances used in tables 2.6, 2.7, and 2.9); 2.4 Electoral Participation of Parties and Alliances 1972–1996 (participation of political parties and alliances in chronological order and including the years and number of contested elections); 2.5 Referendums 1974–1996 (details of registered voters and votes cast); 2.6 Elections for Constitutional Assembly (not held); 2.7 Parliamentary Elections 1972–1996 (details of registered voters and votes cast); 2.8 Composition of Parliament 1972–1996; 2.9 Presidential Elections 1978–1996 (details of registered voters and votes cast); and 2.10 List of Power Holders 1975–1998.

This chapter on elections and electoral systems in Niger follows the same format as all the other country chapters in the book. The first section is introductory and contains a historical overview, discussion of the evolution of electoral provisions, an account of the current electoral provisions, and a comment on the electoral statistics. The second section consists of ten tables. These are: 2.1 Dates of National Elections, Referendums, and Coups d’Etat; 2.2 Electoral Body 1965–1996 (data on population size, registered voters, and votes cast); 2.3 Abbreviations (abbreviations and full names of political parties and alliances used in tables 2.6, 2.7, and 2.9); 2.4 Electoral Participation of Parties and Alliances 1958–1996 (participation of political parties and alliances in chronological order and including the years and number of contested elections); 2.5 Referendums 1987–1996 (details of registered voters and votes cast); 2.6 Elections for Constitutional Assembly (none held); 2.7 Parliamentary Elections 1965–1996 (details of registered voters and votes cast nationally and regionally); 2.8 Composition of Parliament 1958–1996; 2.9 Presidential Elections 1965–1996 (details of registered voters and votes cast nationally and regionally); and 2.10 List of Power Holders 1960–1998.

This chapter on elections and electoral systems in Sudan follows the same format as all the other country chapters in the book. The first section is introductory and contains a historical overview, discussion of the evolution of electoral provisions, an account of the current electoral provisions, and a comment on the electoral statistics. The second section consists of ten tables. These are: 2.1 Dates of National Elections, Referendums, and Coups d’Etat; 2.2 Electoral Body 1953–1998 (data on population size, registered voters and votes cast); 2.3 Abbreviations (abbreviations and full names of political parties and alliances used in tables 2.6, 2.7, and 2.9); 2.4 Electoral Participation of Parties and Alliances 1953–1986 (participation of political parties and alliances in chronological order and including the years and number of contested elections); 2.5 Referendum 1998 (details of registered voters and votes cast); 2.6 Elections for Constitutional Assembly 1965–1986 (details of registered voters and votes cast); 2.7 Parliamentary Elections (no detailed results available); 2.8 Composition of Parliament 1953–1996; 2.9 Presidential Elections 1971–1996 (details of registered voters and votes cast); and 2.10 List of Power Holders 1953–1998.

This chapter on elections and electoral systems in Equatorial Guinea follows the same format as all the other country chapters in the book. The first section is introductory and contains a historical overview, discussion of the evolution of electoral provisions, an account of the current electoral provisions, and a comment on the electoral statistics. The second section consists of ten tables. These are: 2.1 Dates of National Elections, Referendums, and Coups d’Etat; 2.2 Electoral Body 1963–1996 (data on population size, registered voters, and votes cast); 2.3 Abbreviations (abbreviations and full names of political parties and alliances used in tables 2.6, 2.7, and 2.9); 2.4 Electoral Participation of Parties and Alliances 1968–1996 (participation of political parties and alliances in chronological order and including the years and number of contested elections); 2.5 Referendums 1963–1982 (details of registered voters and votes cast nationally and regionally); 2.6 Elections for Constitutional Assembly (none held); 2.7 Parliamentary Elections 1993 (details of registered voters and votes cast nationally and at constituency level); 2.8 Composition of Parliament 1968–1993; 2.9 Presidential Elections 1968–1996 (details of registered voters and votes cast); and 2.10 List of Power Holders 1968–1998.

This chapter on elections and electoral systems in Guinea follows the same format as all the other country chapters in the book. The first section is introductory and contains a historical overview, discussion of the evolution of electoral provisions, an account of the current electoral provisions, and a comment on the electoral statistics. The second section consists of ten tables. These are: 2.1 Dates of National Elections, Referendums, and Coups d’Etat; 2.2 Electoral Body 1958–1995 (data on population size, registered voters, and votes cast); 2.3 Abbreviations (abbreviations and full names of political parties and alliances used in tables 2.6, 2.7, and 2.9); 2.4 Electoral Participation of Parties and Alliances 1961–1998 (participation of political parties and alliances in chronological order and including the years and number of contested elections); 2.5 Referendums 1958 and 1990 (details of registered voters and votes cast); 2.6 Elections for Constitutional Assembly (none held); 2.7 Parliamentary Elections 1957–1995 (details of registered voters and votes cast); 2.8 Composition of Parliament 1963–1995; 2.9 Presidential Elections 1961–1998 (details of registered voters and votes cast); and 2.10 List of Power Holders 1958–1998.

This chapter on elections and electoral systems in Liberia follows the same format as all the other country chapters in the book. The first section is introductory and contains a historical overview, discussion of the evolution of electoral provisions, an account of the current electoral provisions, and a comment on the electoral statistics. The second section consists of ten tables. These are: 2.1 Dates of National Elections, Referendums, and Coups d’Etat; 2.2 Electoral Body 1955–1985 (data on population size, registered voters, and votes cast); 2.3 Abbreviations (abbreviations and full names of political parties and alliances used in tables 2.6, 2.7, and 2.9); 2.4 Electoral Participation of Parties and Alliances 1955–1985 (participation of political parties and alliances in chronological order and including the years and number of contested elections); 2.5 Referendum 1984 (details of registered voters and votes cast); 2.6 Elections for Constitutional Assembly (none held); 2.7 Parliamentary Elections 1985–1997 (details of registered voters and votes cast nationally and by county); 2.8 Composition of Parliament 1955–1997 (House of Representatives and Senate); 2.9 Presidential Elections 1955–1997 (details of registered voters and votes cast nationally and regionally); and 2.10 List of Power Holders 1931–1998.

This chapter on elections and electoral systems in Benin (formerly Dahomey) follows the same format as all the other country chapters in the book. The first section is introductory and contains a historical overview, discussion of the evolution of electoral provisions, an account of the current electoral provisions, and a comment on the electoral statistics. The second section consists of ten tables. These are: 2.1 Dates of National Elections, Referendums, and Coups d’Etat; 2.2 Electoral Body 1958–1996 (data on population size, registered voters, and votes cast); 2.3 Abbreviations (abbreviations and full names of political parties and alliances used in tables 2.6, 2.7 and 2.9); 2.4 Electoral Participation of Parties and Alliances 1959–1996 (participation of political parties and alliances in chronological order and including the years and number of contested elections); 2.5 Referendums 1958–1990 (details of registered voters and votes cast); 2.6 Elections for Constitutional Assembly (none held); 2.7 Parliamentary Elections 1959–1995 (details of registered voters and votes cast); 2.8 Composition of Parliament 1959–1995; 2.9 Presidential Elections 1968–1996 (details of registered voters and votes cast nationally and regionally); and 2.10 List of Power Holders 1960–1998.

This chapter on elections and electoral systems in the Central African Republic follows the same format as all the other country chapters in the book. The first section is introductory and contains a historical overview, discussion of the evolution of electoral provisions, an account of the current electoral provisions, and a comment on the electoral statistics. The second section consists of ten tables. These are: 2.1 Dates of National Elections, Referendums, and Coups d’Etat; 2.2 Electoral Body 1959–1998 (data on population size, registered voters, and votes cast); 2.3 Abbreviations (abbreviations and full names of political parties and alliances used in tables 2.6, 2.7, and 2.9); 2.4 Electoral Participation of Parties and Alliances 1959–1998 (participation of political parties and alliances in chronological order and including the years and number of contested elections); 2.5 Referendums 1981–1994 (details of registered voters and votes cast); 2.6 Elections for Constitutional Assembly (none held); 2.7 Parliamentary Elections 1959–1998 (details of registered voters and votes cast); 2.8 Composition of Parliament 1959–1998; 2.9 Presidential Elections 1964–1993 (details of registered voters and votes cast); and 2.10 List of Power Holders 1959–1999.

This chapter on elections and electoral systems in Congo (Brazzaville) follows the same format as all the other country chapters in the book. The first section is introductory and contains a historical overview, discussion of the evolution of electoral provisions, an account of the current electoral provisions (none exist at present), and a comment on the electoral statistics. The second section consists of ten tables. These are: 2.1 Dates of National Elections, Referendums, and Coups d’Etat; 2.2 Electoral Body 1959–1993 (data on population size, registered voters, and votes cast); 2.3 Abbreviations (abbreviations and full names of political parties and alliances used in tables 2.6, 2.7, and 2.9); 2.4 Electoral Participation of Parties and Alliances 1959–1993 (participation of political parties and alliances in chronological order and including the years and number of contested elections); 2.5 Referendums 1963–1992 (details of registered voters and votes cast); 2.6 Elections for Constitutional Assembly (not held); 2.7 Parliamentary Elections 1959–1989 (details of registered voters and votes cast nationally and regionally); 2.8 Composition of Parliament 1959–1993; 2.9 Presidential Elections 1961–1993 (details of registered voters and votes cast nationally and regionally); and 2.10 List of Power Holders 1957–1997.

This chapter on elections and electoral systems in Libya follows the same format as all the other country chapters in the book. The first section is introductory and contains a historical overview, discussion of the evolution of electoral provisions, an account of the current electoral provisions, and a comment on the electoral statistics. The second section consists of ten tables. These are: 2.1 Dates of National Elections, Referendums, and Coups d’Etat; 2.2 Electoral Body 1971 (data on population size, registered voters, and votes cast); 2.3 Abbreviations (none given or used); 2.4 Electoral Participation of Parties and Alliances (no statistical data are available for the parliamentary elections held from 1952 to 1965, and neither presidential nor parliamentary elections have been held since the proclamation of the Libyan Arab Republic); 2.5 Referendum 1971 (details of registered voters and votes cast in the referendum on the foundation of the Federation of Arab Republics between Egypt, Libya, and Syria); 2.6 Elections for Constitutional Assembly (none held); 2.7 Parliamentary Elections (see note under 2.4); 2.8 Composition of Parliament (see note under 2.4); 2.9 Presidential Elections (see note under 2.4); and 2.10 List of Power Holders 1951–1998.

This chapter on elections and electoral systems in Mauritania follows the same format as all the other country chapters in the book. The first section is introductory and contains a historical overview, discussion of the evolution of electoral provisions, an account of the current electoral provisions, and a comment on the electoral statistics. The second section consists of ten tables. These are: 2.1 Dates of National Elections, Referendums, and Coups d’Etat; 2.2 Electoral Body 1959–1997 (data on population size, registered voters, and votes cast); 2.3 Abbreviations (abbreviations and full names of political parties and alliances used in tables 2.6, 2.7, and 2.9); 2.4 Electoral Participation of Parties and Alliances 1959–1997 (participation of political parties and alliances in chronological order and including the years and number of contested elections); 2.5 Referendum 1991 (details of registered voters and votes cast); 2.6 Elections for Constitutional Assembly (none held); 2.7 Parliamentary Elections 1959–1996 (details of registered voters and votes cast); 2.8 Composition of Parliament 1959–1996; 2.9 Presidential Elections 1961–1997 (details of registered voters and votes cast nationally and per moughataa); and 2.10 List of Power Holders 1959–1998.