Peter B. E. Hill
- Published in print:
- 2003
- Published Online:
- April 2004
- ISBN:
- 9780199257522
- eISBN:
- 9780191601026
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/0199257523.003.0006
- Subject:
- Political Science, Political Economy
Deals with the response of the state to organized crime. During the early 1990s a new anti‐yakuza law was introduced. Having discussed the reasons for this law's introduction, this law is described ...
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Deals with the response of the state to organized crime. During the early 1990s a new anti‐yakuza law was introduced. Having discussed the reasons for this law's introduction, this law is described and analysed with reference to American and European anti‐organized crime laws (both of which were influential in the internal policy debate).Less
Deals with the response of the state to organized crime. During the early 1990s a new anti‐yakuza law was introduced. Having discussed the reasons for this law's introduction, this law is described and analysed with reference to American and European anti‐organized crime laws (both of which were influential in the internal policy debate).
Kimberley N. Trapp
- Published in print:
- 2011
- Published Online:
- September 2011
- ISBN:
- 9780199592999
- eISBN:
- 9780191729102
- Item type:
- book
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199592999.001.0001
- Subject:
- Law, Public International Law, Criminal Law and Criminology
The rules of State responsibility have an important but under-utilised role to play in the terrorism context. They determine both whether a breach of primary obligations has occurred, through the ...
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The rules of State responsibility have an important but under-utilised role to play in the terrorism context. They determine both whether a breach of primary obligations has occurred, through the rules of attribution, and the consequences which flow from that breach, including the possible adoption of responsive measures by injured States. This book explores the substantive international legal obligations and rules of State responsibility applicable to international terrorism and examines the problems and prospects for effectively holding States responsible for internationally wrongful acts related to terrorism. In particular, it analyses the way in which the implementation of State responsibility for international terrorism may be affected by the self-determination debate and any applicable lex specialis (including the jus in bello) and sub-systems of international law (including the WTO), as well as the interaction between determinations of individual criminal responsibility and the implementation of State responsibility. The international community has responded to the threat of international terrorism through both a security/jus ad bellum paradigm and by creating an international criminal law framework to address the conduct of non-State terrorist actors. The secondary rules of State responsibility analysed in this book cut across both approaches as they apply whether States breach their primary obligations relating to terrorism through participation in or a failure to prevent or punish terrorism. While this book identifies a number of problems in implementing State responsibility for international terrorism, it also highlights the prospects for the rules of State responsibility to make a crucial contribution to maintaining respect for obligations which lie at the very foundations of the contemporary international legal order, and to restoring the relationships between States if those obligations are breached.Less
The rules of State responsibility have an important but under-utilised role to play in the terrorism context. They determine both whether a breach of primary obligations has occurred, through the rules of attribution, and the consequences which flow from that breach, including the possible adoption of responsive measures by injured States. This book explores the substantive international legal obligations and rules of State responsibility applicable to international terrorism and examines the problems and prospects for effectively holding States responsible for internationally wrongful acts related to terrorism. In particular, it analyses the way in which the implementation of State responsibility for international terrorism may be affected by the self-determination debate and any applicable lex specialis (including the jus in bello) and sub-systems of international law (including the WTO), as well as the interaction between determinations of individual criminal responsibility and the implementation of State responsibility. The international community has responded to the threat of international terrorism through both a security/jus ad bellum paradigm and by creating an international criminal law framework to address the conduct of non-State terrorist actors. The secondary rules of State responsibility analysed in this book cut across both approaches as they apply whether States breach their primary obligations relating to terrorism through participation in or a failure to prevent or punish terrorism. While this book identifies a number of problems in implementing State responsibility for international terrorism, it also highlights the prospects for the rules of State responsibility to make a crucial contribution to maintaining respect for obligations which lie at the very foundations of the contemporary international legal order, and to restoring the relationships between States if those obligations are breached.
William R. Clark
- Published in print:
- 2008
- Published Online:
- September 2008
- ISBN:
- 9780195336214
- eISBN:
- 9780199868537
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195336214.003.0004
- Subject:
- Biology, Ecology
It is likely that within not too many years, we will have effectively neutralized most if not all of the CDC A-list agents as potential bioterror weapons. But for some time now scientists have been ...
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It is likely that within not too many years, we will have effectively neutralized most if not all of the CDC A-list agents as potential bioterror weapons. But for some time now scientists have been asking what the next generation of bioweapons might look like, and how we can prepare ourselves to defend against them. It is now possible, using molecular biology techniques, to genetically alter existing pathogens to make them more deadly, easier to weaponize, more resistant to drugs or vaccines, or even to create new pathogens that have not existed before. Chapter 4 looks at what has been done to date along these lines, and possibilities for the future. In addition to inserting extra toxic genes into pathogens, researchers have been able to rebuild in the laboratory copies of the extremely deadly 1918 flu virus. Such research is beginning to worry many people, and may be in violation of exisiting bioweapons treaties.Less
It is likely that within not too many years, we will have effectively neutralized most if not all of the CDC A-list agents as potential bioterror weapons. But for some time now scientists have been asking what the next generation of bioweapons might look like, and how we can prepare ourselves to defend against them. It is now possible, using molecular biology techniques, to genetically alter existing pathogens to make them more deadly, easier to weaponize, more resistant to drugs or vaccines, or even to create new pathogens that have not existed before. Chapter 4 looks at what has been done to date along these lines, and possibilities for the future. In addition to inserting extra toxic genes into pathogens, researchers have been able to rebuild in the laboratory copies of the extremely deadly 1918 flu virus. Such research is beginning to worry many people, and may be in violation of exisiting bioweapons treaties.
Noam Lubell
- Published in print:
- 2010
- Published Online:
- September 2010
- ISBN:
- 9780199584840
- eISBN:
- 9780191594540
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199584840.003.0004
- Subject:
- Law, Human Rights and Immigration, Public International Law
This chapter questions whether extraterritorial use of force against non-state actors might, in certain conditions, not be a breach of international law, even if taken outside the framework of ...
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This chapter questions whether extraterritorial use of force against non-state actors might, in certain conditions, not be a breach of international law, even if taken outside the framework of self-defence. The concepts of countermeasures, necessity, hot pursuit, and piracy are examined. In addition, there is an analysis of the possibility of alternative paradigms or interpretations that might be claimed to allow for use of force other than in self-defence, such as ‘extraterritorial law enforcement’.Less
This chapter questions whether extraterritorial use of force against non-state actors might, in certain conditions, not be a breach of international law, even if taken outside the framework of self-defence. The concepts of countermeasures, necessity, hot pursuit, and piracy are examined. In addition, there is an analysis of the possibility of alternative paradigms or interpretations that might be claimed to allow for use of force other than in self-defence, such as ‘extraterritorial law enforcement’.
J. Axelsson, G. Kecklund, and M. Sallinen
- Published in print:
- 2010
- Published Online:
- January 2011
- ISBN:
- 9780199566594
- eISBN:
- 9780191595066
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199566594.003.0015
- Subject:
- Public Health and Epidemiology, Public Health, Epidemiology
The rapid development of the modern society has resulted in a growing population of workers that have to work around the clock. However, working at other times (which is what a shift-worker does) ...
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The rapid development of the modern society has resulted in a growing population of workers that have to work around the clock. However, working at other times (which is what a shift-worker does) comes at a cost. Night work is related to short sleep, increased fatigue, intrusions of sleep, worse performance, and increased risk for injuries and accidents. Early morning work is also affected, but to a lesser extent. Working shifts carries long-term health consequences such as an increased risk for developing cardiovascular disease, endocrine and metabolic disturbances, cancer, and gastrointestinal disorders. However, the evidence is far from immaculate and there is a need for studies with better measures of exposure as well as to why there are so large individual differences in tolerance to shift-work. In addition, the negative consequences of shift-work can be reduced by both organizational and individual countermeasures. The interactive effects of combining several countermeasures seem extra promising.Less
The rapid development of the modern society has resulted in a growing population of workers that have to work around the clock. However, working at other times (which is what a shift-worker does) comes at a cost. Night work is related to short sleep, increased fatigue, intrusions of sleep, worse performance, and increased risk for injuries and accidents. Early morning work is also affected, but to a lesser extent. Working shifts carries long-term health consequences such as an increased risk for developing cardiovascular disease, endocrine and metabolic disturbances, cancer, and gastrointestinal disorders. However, the evidence is far from immaculate and there is a need for studies with better measures of exposure as well as to why there are so large individual differences in tolerance to shift-work. In addition, the negative consequences of shift-work can be reduced by both organizational and individual countermeasures. The interactive effects of combining several countermeasures seem extra promising.
Mary Ellen O'Connell
- Published in print:
- 2008
- Published Online:
- January 2009
- ISBN:
- 9780195368949
- eISBN:
- 9780199871100
- Item type:
- book
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195368949.001.0001
- Subject:
- Law, Public International Law
International law supports order in the world and the attainment of humanity's fundamental goals of advancing peace, prosperity, human rights, and environmental protection. Yet, there have been ...
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International law supports order in the world and the attainment of humanity's fundamental goals of advancing peace, prosperity, human rights, and environmental protection. Yet, there have been voices for centuries attacking international law in order to promote the dominance or hegemony of a single nation. After 9/11, such advocates succeeded in getting America's leaders to invade Iraq, establish Guantanamo Bay and black sites, use waterboarding and other forms of torture and coercion during interrogation, and execute individuals in defiance of the International Court of Justice. This book reveals that to be persuasive, opponents of international law have misrepresented what international law is and how it works. Anti-international law voices have presented international law as powerless and unworthy of respect. To clear away the myths, the book draws on new developments in natural law, positive law, and process theory. The resulting new classical theory demonstrates that international law's power or authority is explained by the same theory that explains the authority of law within nations. International law has authority because it is widely accepted as law. Part of the evidence of that acceptance is found in the fact international law has forceful means of enforcement — armed force, sanctions, countermeasures, and courts. The book provides many examples of international law in action — the real international law with the power to support the interest of all humanity.Less
International law supports order in the world and the attainment of humanity's fundamental goals of advancing peace, prosperity, human rights, and environmental protection. Yet, there have been voices for centuries attacking international law in order to promote the dominance or hegemony of a single nation. After 9/11, such advocates succeeded in getting America's leaders to invade Iraq, establish Guantanamo Bay and black sites, use waterboarding and other forms of torture and coercion during interrogation, and execute individuals in defiance of the International Court of Justice. This book reveals that to be persuasive, opponents of international law have misrepresented what international law is and how it works. Anti-international law voices have presented international law as powerless and unworthy of respect. To clear away the myths, the book draws on new developments in natural law, positive law, and process theory. The resulting new classical theory demonstrates that international law's power or authority is explained by the same theory that explains the authority of law within nations. International law has authority because it is widely accepted as law. Part of the evidence of that acceptance is found in the fact international law has forceful means of enforcement — armed force, sanctions, countermeasures, and courts. The book provides many examples of international law in action — the real international law with the power to support the interest of all humanity.
Tee L. Guidotti
- Published in print:
- 2011
- Published Online:
- May 2011
- ISBN:
- 9780195380002
- eISBN:
- 9780199893881
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195380002.003.0006
- Subject:
- Public Health and Epidemiology, Public Health
Safety, or safety science, refers to the application of technology, behavioral science and administrative controls to prevent incidents resulting in injury, property loss and lost productivity. ...
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Safety, or safety science, refers to the application of technology, behavioral science and administrative controls to prevent incidents resulting in injury, property loss and lost productivity. Occupational safety is a general field in which safety personnel become experts in preventing injuries on the job through ergonomics and safety engineering. There are many occupational safety problems common to all occupations, such as falls from heights and handling materials. Fatalities are deaths due to injuries on the job. Societies in different times and places have developed different ideas about injury. . Modern safety science uses an approach called Haddon's Countermeasures and an evaluation tool called Haddon's Matrix, both of which were developed by the same safety scientist, who considered injuries to be the adverse consequences of the uncontrolled release of energy acting on a susceptible structure, such as the human body, in an environment that permitted the incident to happen. Injuries tend to be underreported, because workers want to keep their jobs and supervisors do not want to look bad. The injury pyramid is a graphic display of the relationship between fatalities and serious injuries, lost-time injuries, minor injuries, and near-misses. Incidents resulting in injury can be anticipated and prevented by capturing information early on near-misses and minor incidents, which allows planning to prevent the major incidents.Less
Safety, or safety science, refers to the application of technology, behavioral science and administrative controls to prevent incidents resulting in injury, property loss and lost productivity. Occupational safety is a general field in which safety personnel become experts in preventing injuries on the job through ergonomics and safety engineering. There are many occupational safety problems common to all occupations, such as falls from heights and handling materials. Fatalities are deaths due to injuries on the job. Societies in different times and places have developed different ideas about injury. . Modern safety science uses an approach called Haddon's Countermeasures and an evaluation tool called Haddon's Matrix, both of which were developed by the same safety scientist, who considered injuries to be the adverse consequences of the uncontrolled release of energy acting on a susceptible structure, such as the human body, in an environment that permitted the incident to happen. Injuries tend to be underreported, because workers want to keep their jobs and supervisors do not want to look bad. The injury pyramid is a graphic display of the relationship between fatalities and serious injuries, lost-time injuries, minor injuries, and near-misses. Incidents resulting in injury can be anticipated and prevented by capturing information early on near-misses and minor incidents, which allows planning to prevent the major incidents.
Antonios Tzanakopoulos
- Published in print:
- 2011
- Published Online:
- May 2011
- ISBN:
- 9780199600762
- eISBN:
- 9780191725210
- Item type:
- book
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199600762.001.0001
- Subject:
- Law, Public International Law
This book examines how the United Nations Security Council, in exercising its power to impose binding non-forcible measures (‘sanctions’) under Article 41 of the UN Charter, may violate international ...
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This book examines how the United Nations Security Council, in exercising its power to impose binding non-forcible measures (‘sanctions’) under Article 41 of the UN Charter, may violate international law, i.e., limits on its power imposed by the UN Charter itself and by general international law, including human rights guarantees. Such acts may engage the international responsibility of the United Nations, the organization of which the Security Council is an organ. The book then proceeds to examine how (and by whom) the engagement of this responsibility can be determined, i.e., who it is that can find the Council to have acted unlawfully. Most importantly, the book discusses how (and by whom) the responsibility of the UN for unlawful Security Council sanctions can be implemented, i.e., how (and by whom) the UN can be held to account for Security Council excesses. The central thesis is that States can react to unlawful sanctions imposed by the Security Council in a decentralized manner by disobeying the Security Council's command. In international law, this disobedience can be justified as being a countermeasure to the Security Council's unlawful act. Recent practice of States, whether undertaken by executives or, increasingly, by domestic courts, evidences an augmenting tendency to disobey sanctions that are perceived as unlawful. After discussing other possible qualifications of disobedience under international law, the book concludes that this practice can (and should) be qualified as a countermeasure.Less
This book examines how the United Nations Security Council, in exercising its power to impose binding non-forcible measures (‘sanctions’) under Article 41 of the UN Charter, may violate international law, i.e., limits on its power imposed by the UN Charter itself and by general international law, including human rights guarantees. Such acts may engage the international responsibility of the United Nations, the organization of which the Security Council is an organ. The book then proceeds to examine how (and by whom) the engagement of this responsibility can be determined, i.e., who it is that can find the Council to have acted unlawfully. Most importantly, the book discusses how (and by whom) the responsibility of the UN for unlawful Security Council sanctions can be implemented, i.e., how (and by whom) the UN can be held to account for Security Council excesses. The central thesis is that States can react to unlawful sanctions imposed by the Security Council in a decentralized manner by disobeying the Security Council's command. In international law, this disobedience can be justified as being a countermeasure to the Security Council's unlawful act. Recent practice of States, whether undertaken by executives or, increasingly, by domestic courts, evidences an augmenting tendency to disobey sanctions that are perceived as unlawful. After discussing other possible qualifications of disobedience under international law, the book concludes that this practice can (and should) be qualified as a countermeasure.
Kimberley N. Trapp
- Published in print:
- 2011
- Published Online:
- September 2011
- ISBN:
- 9780199592999
- eISBN:
- 9780191729102
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199592999.003.0005
- Subject:
- Law, Public International Law, Criminal Law and Criminology
Chapter 5 analyses the implementation of State responsibility for international terrorism through the adoption of non-military measures aimed at securing a wrongdoing State’s compliance with its ...
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Chapter 5 analyses the implementation of State responsibility for international terrorism through the adoption of non-military measures aimed at securing a wrongdoing State’s compliance with its secondary obligations of cessation and reparation, in particular the adoption of retorsive measures and countermeasures. It assesses potential problems with the adoption of countermeasures in the terrorism context, including the potential for misevaluating the wrongfulness of a target State’s conduct and continued uncertainty surrounding the legitimacy of collective countermeasures. Finally, Chapter 5 explores the extent to which sub-systems of international law, including diplomatic law and the WTO, affect the right to adopt countermeasures in response to breaches of international terrorism obligations, including the extent to which such sub-system exclude the application of the secondary rules of State responsibility or restrict the scope of their wrongfulness preclusion.Less
Chapter 5 analyses the implementation of State responsibility for international terrorism through the adoption of non-military measures aimed at securing a wrongdoing State’s compliance with its secondary obligations of cessation and reparation, in particular the adoption of retorsive measures and countermeasures. It assesses potential problems with the adoption of countermeasures in the terrorism context, including the potential for misevaluating the wrongfulness of a target State’s conduct and continued uncertainty surrounding the legitimacy of collective countermeasures. Finally, Chapter 5 explores the extent to which sub-systems of international law, including diplomatic law and the WTO, affect the right to adopt countermeasures in response to breaches of international terrorism obligations, including the extent to which such sub-system exclude the application of the secondary rules of State responsibility or restrict the scope of their wrongfulness preclusion.
Antonios Tzanakopoulos
- Published in print:
- 2011
- Published Online:
- May 2011
- ISBN:
- 9780199600762
- eISBN:
- 9780191725210
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199600762.003.0007
- Subject:
- Law, Public International Law
This chapter examines how the responsibility of the UN for wrongful Security Council sanctions can be implemented. The normal way of implementation of responsibility in a decentralized legal system ...
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This chapter examines how the responsibility of the UN for wrongful Security Council sanctions can be implemented. The normal way of implementation of responsibility in a decentralized legal system is through countermeasures, i.e., through self-help. The chapter accepts that disobedience is the ultimum refugium of States when these are faced with what they consider wrongful Council sanctions. But it seeks to qualify legally this disobedience. It discusses whether it constitutes civil disobedience, whether it is allowed under Article 25 UN Charter, which — it is argued — obligates States to comply with valid, intra vires acts of the Council, or whether it constitutes an illegal acts that is justifiable as a countermeasure. It concludes that it is the latter, not less so because acts of the Council are always valid, even if they are illegal, for lack of an instance to determine their invalidity.Less
This chapter examines how the responsibility of the UN for wrongful Security Council sanctions can be implemented. The normal way of implementation of responsibility in a decentralized legal system is through countermeasures, i.e., through self-help. The chapter accepts that disobedience is the ultimum refugium of States when these are faced with what they consider wrongful Council sanctions. But it seeks to qualify legally this disobedience. It discusses whether it constitutes civil disobedience, whether it is allowed under Article 25 UN Charter, which — it is argued — obligates States to comply with valid, intra vires acts of the Council, or whether it constitutes an illegal acts that is justifiable as a countermeasure. It concludes that it is the latter, not less so because acts of the Council are always valid, even if they are illegal, for lack of an instance to determine their invalidity.
Vincent-Joël Proulx
- Published in print:
- 2016
- Published Online:
- August 2016
- ISBN:
- 9780199680399
- eISBN:
- 9780191760297
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199680399.003.0014
- Subject:
- Law, Public International Law, Human Rights and Immigration
This concluding chapter recalls the major themes and issues addressed in Part III of the monograph, emphasizing that the invocation of self-defence (or more modest forcible reactions) in response to ...
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This concluding chapter recalls the major themes and issues addressed in Part III of the monograph, emphasizing that the invocation of self-defence (or more modest forcible reactions) in response to global security violations should be a solution of last resort. It also acknowledges that self-defence repertoire and the law of State responsibility may differ in both scope and consequences. Ultimately, this chapter argues for a strong role for the Security Council in vetting forcible responses and monitoring States’ violations of global security obligations.Less
This concluding chapter recalls the major themes and issues addressed in Part III of the monograph, emphasizing that the invocation of self-defence (or more modest forcible reactions) in response to global security violations should be a solution of last resort. It also acknowledges that self-defence repertoire and the law of State responsibility may differ in both scope and consequences. Ultimately, this chapter argues for a strong role for the Security Council in vetting forcible responses and monitoring States’ violations of global security obligations.
Frank L. Smith
- Published in print:
- 2014
- Published Online:
- August 2016
- ISBN:
- 9780801452710
- eISBN:
- 9780801455162
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Cornell University Press
- DOI:
- 10.7591/cornell/9780801452710.003.0001
- Subject:
- Political Science, Security Studies
This introductory chapter provides a background of biodefense and biological weapons. Biological weapons harm only living organisms because they incapacitate or kill through disease instead of ...
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This introductory chapter provides a background of biodefense and biological weapons. Biological weapons harm only living organisms because they incapacitate or kill through disease instead of causing blunt or penetrating trauma. The damage that these weapons cause can be limited through a combination of medical countermeasures, detection and identification, and physical protection—the key components of biodefense. Physical protection limits exposure to infection through face masks and filters that reduce the risk of inhaling aerosolized biological weapon agents. Detection and identification involves sensors and surveillance to help determine when a biological attack has occurred and what pathogens might be present. Lastly, medical countermeasures can prevent or treat infection through prophylactic vaccines and therapeutic drugs such as antibiotics.Less
This introductory chapter provides a background of biodefense and biological weapons. Biological weapons harm only living organisms because they incapacitate or kill through disease instead of causing blunt or penetrating trauma. The damage that these weapons cause can be limited through a combination of medical countermeasures, detection and identification, and physical protection—the key components of biodefense. Physical protection limits exposure to infection through face masks and filters that reduce the risk of inhaling aerosolized biological weapon agents. Detection and identification involves sensors and surveillance to help determine when a biological attack has occurred and what pathogens might be present. Lastly, medical countermeasures can prevent or treat infection through prophylactic vaccines and therapeutic drugs such as antibiotics.
Louise Manning and Jan Mei Soon
- Published in print:
- 2018
- Published Online:
- January 2019
- ISBN:
- 9781447336013
- eISBN:
- 9781447336051
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Policy Press
- DOI:
- 10.1332/policypress/9781447336013.003.0009
- Subject:
- Law, Criminal Law and Criminology
Food supply chain fraud occurs as a result of a multiplicity of drivers, motivations, and intended outcomes. The aim of this book chapter is to consider one aspect of food fraud, namely adulteration ...
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Food supply chain fraud occurs as a result of a multiplicity of drivers, motivations, and intended outcomes. The aim of this book chapter is to consider one aspect of food fraud, namely adulteration and provide comment on reported prevalence, and critique the use of countermeasures, including product sampling, to minimise, or where possible eliminate, food adulteration risk. Procedural and policy driven countermeasures and/or traditional process controls alone will not give sufficient protection against food adulteration. Instead additional measures such as risk based product testing, responsive surveillance and verification mechanisms that are underpinned by real-time supply chain intelligence also need to be in place. This requires food supply chain leaders and managers to firstly recognise the specific risk of food adulteration associated with their organisations and products, implement effective risk characterisation, risk assessment and risk mitigation, and appropriate food adulteration risk communication programs.Less
Food supply chain fraud occurs as a result of a multiplicity of drivers, motivations, and intended outcomes. The aim of this book chapter is to consider one aspect of food fraud, namely adulteration and provide comment on reported prevalence, and critique the use of countermeasures, including product sampling, to minimise, or where possible eliminate, food adulteration risk. Procedural and policy driven countermeasures and/or traditional process controls alone will not give sufficient protection against food adulteration. Instead additional measures such as risk based product testing, responsive surveillance and verification mechanisms that are underpinned by real-time supply chain intelligence also need to be in place. This requires food supply chain leaders and managers to firstly recognise the specific risk of food adulteration associated with their organisations and products, implement effective risk characterisation, risk assessment and risk mitigation, and appropriate food adulteration risk communication programs.
Marco Roscini
- Published in print:
- 2014
- Published Online:
- April 2014
- ISBN:
- 9780199655014
- eISBN:
- 9780191747991
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199655014.003.0005
- Subject:
- Law, Public International Law, Human Rights and Immigration
This Chapter explores how the law of neutrality affects the conduct of cyber operations by neutral and belligerent states. It first establishes in what situations the law of neutrality applies and ...
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This Chapter explores how the law of neutrality affects the conduct of cyber operations by neutral and belligerent states. It first establishes in what situations the law of neutrality applies and subsequently explores what cyber activities carried out by the belligerent and neutral states may breach their obligations under the law of neutrality by distinguishing operations from, through, and with effects on neutral territory, as well as other cyber and cyber-related activities, including the use of cyber infrastructures on neutral territory for communication purposes. The impact of the entry into force of the UN Charter on the law of neutrality is then discussed, while the last section looks at the remedies against cyber activities that breach the law of neutrality, in particular the resort to forcible and non-forcible countermeasures against such violations.Less
This Chapter explores how the law of neutrality affects the conduct of cyber operations by neutral and belligerent states. It first establishes in what situations the law of neutrality applies and subsequently explores what cyber activities carried out by the belligerent and neutral states may breach their obligations under the law of neutrality by distinguishing operations from, through, and with effects on neutral territory, as well as other cyber and cyber-related activities, including the use of cyber infrastructures on neutral territory for communication purposes. The impact of the entry into force of the UN Charter on the law of neutrality is then discussed, while the last section looks at the remedies against cyber activities that breach the law of neutrality, in particular the resort to forcible and non-forcible countermeasures against such violations.
John Axelsson, Mikael Sallinen, Tina Sundelin, and Göran Kecklund
- Published in print:
- 2018
- Published Online:
- August 2018
- ISBN:
- 9780198778240
- eISBN:
- 9780191823756
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/oso/9780198778240.003.0020
- Subject:
- Public Health and Epidemiology, Epidemiology, Public Health
The rapid development of modern society has resulted in a growing population of workers that have to work around the clock. However, working at different times comes at a cost. Night work is related ...
More
The rapid development of modern society has resulted in a growing population of workers that have to work around the clock. However, working at different times comes at a cost. Night work is related to short sleep, increased fatigue, falling asleep at work, worse performance, and increased risk for injuries and accidents. Early morning work is also affected, but to a lesser extent. Working shifts can carry long-term health consequences such as an increased risk for developing cardiovascular disease, endocrine and metabolic disturbances, cancer, and gastrointestinal disorders. However, the evidence is far from immaculate and there is a need for studies with better measures of exposure and more knowledge regarding why there are such large individual differences in tolerance to shift work. In addition, the negative consequences of shift work can be reduced by both organizational and individual countermeasures. The interactive effects of combining several countermeasures seem especially promising.Less
The rapid development of modern society has resulted in a growing population of workers that have to work around the clock. However, working at different times comes at a cost. Night work is related to short sleep, increased fatigue, falling asleep at work, worse performance, and increased risk for injuries and accidents. Early morning work is also affected, but to a lesser extent. Working shifts can carry long-term health consequences such as an increased risk for developing cardiovascular disease, endocrine and metabolic disturbances, cancer, and gastrointestinal disorders. However, the evidence is far from immaculate and there is a need for studies with better measures of exposure and more knowledge regarding why there are such large individual differences in tolerance to shift work. In addition, the negative consequences of shift work can be reduced by both organizational and individual countermeasures. The interactive effects of combining several countermeasures seem especially promising.
Nita Lewis Shattuck, Panagiotis Matsangas, Vincent Mysliwiec, and Jennifer L. Creamer
- Published in print:
- 2019
- Published Online:
- January 2019
- ISBN:
- 9780190455132
- eISBN:
- 9780190455156
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/oso/9780190455132.003.0010
- Subject:
- Psychology, Cognitive Psychology, Cognitive Neuroscience
This chapter explores the influence of sleep on human performance and well-being. A general discussion of the role of sleep in humans is followed by a description of the functions of various stages ...
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This chapter explores the influence of sleep on human performance and well-being. A general discussion of the role of sleep in humans is followed by a description of the functions of various stages of sleep. The authors explore causal factors of insufficient sleep and inventory known effects of sleep restriction on human performance. They then describe the particular challenges of fatigue and sleep deprivation in military operational environments. The efficacy of fatigue countermeasures and alertness aids commonly used in military settings is presented. The chapter concludes with an argument for more deliberately protecting and promoting sleep, particularly in vulnerable populations such as shiftworkers.Less
This chapter explores the influence of sleep on human performance and well-being. A general discussion of the role of sleep in humans is followed by a description of the functions of various stages of sleep. The authors explore causal factors of insufficient sleep and inventory known effects of sleep restriction on human performance. They then describe the particular challenges of fatigue and sleep deprivation in military operational environments. The efficacy of fatigue countermeasures and alertness aids commonly used in military settings is presented. The chapter concludes with an argument for more deliberately protecting and promoting sleep, particularly in vulnerable populations such as shiftworkers.
Vincent-Joël Proulx
- Published in print:
- 2016
- Published Online:
- August 2016
- ISBN:
- 9780199680399
- eISBN:
- 9780191760297
- Item type:
- book
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199680399.001.0001
- Subject:
- Law, Public International Law, Human Rights and Immigration
This monograph examines the role UN organs can play in implementing the law of State responsibility in global security contexts, using transnational terrorism as its principal case study. It ...
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This monograph examines the role UN organs can play in implementing the law of State responsibility in global security contexts, using transnational terrorism as its principal case study. It canvasses the potential contributions of the General Assembly, International Court of Justice (ICJ), and the United Nations Security Council (UNSC). It addresses related legal questions, such as areas of possible functional overlap between these organs, particularly the Council and ICJ, and the potential judicial review of Council resolutions. This leads to the central argument that the Council can play an important role, sometimes determinant, in implementing States’ legal responsibility for failing to prevent terrorism, both inside and outside the Chapter VII framework. In making this controversial claim, the book acknowledges the Council’s role as legislator, given that it has promulgated broad and far-reaching counterterrorism obligations since 9/11. More importantly, it turns to the largely underexplored role of the SC as implementer of relevant legal norms, especially when it is time to enforce international legal obligations. Moving away from self-help remedies, the book argues that the institutionalization of this normative scheme can yield interesting pay-offs in certain circumstances as a welcome alternative to unchecked unilateralism. It explores the more controversial consequences flowing from State responsibility including the prospect of injured States adopting forcible measures against responsible States for their failures to prevent terrorism. Ultimately, the book investigates whether self-defence and other forcible reactions, envisaged both inside and outside the Council, can be reconciled with State responsibility principles.Less
This monograph examines the role UN organs can play in implementing the law of State responsibility in global security contexts, using transnational terrorism as its principal case study. It canvasses the potential contributions of the General Assembly, International Court of Justice (ICJ), and the United Nations Security Council (UNSC). It addresses related legal questions, such as areas of possible functional overlap between these organs, particularly the Council and ICJ, and the potential judicial review of Council resolutions. This leads to the central argument that the Council can play an important role, sometimes determinant, in implementing States’ legal responsibility for failing to prevent terrorism, both inside and outside the Chapter VII framework. In making this controversial claim, the book acknowledges the Council’s role as legislator, given that it has promulgated broad and far-reaching counterterrorism obligations since 9/11. More importantly, it turns to the largely underexplored role of the SC as implementer of relevant legal norms, especially when it is time to enforce international legal obligations. Moving away from self-help remedies, the book argues that the institutionalization of this normative scheme can yield interesting pay-offs in certain circumstances as a welcome alternative to unchecked unilateralism. It explores the more controversial consequences flowing from State responsibility including the prospect of injured States adopting forcible measures against responsible States for their failures to prevent terrorism. Ultimately, the book investigates whether self-defence and other forcible reactions, envisaged both inside and outside the Council, can be reconciled with State responsibility principles.
Gary P. Corn
- Published in print:
- 2019
- Published Online:
- December 2018
- ISBN:
- 9780190915360
- eISBN:
- 9780190915391
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/oso/9780190915360.003.0012
- Subject:
- Law, Public International Law
When the first host-to-host message was sent across the ARPANET in October 1969, few could have fully anticipated the degree to which the internet, and now the internet of things, would explode ...
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When the first host-to-host message was sent across the ARPANET in October 1969, few could have fully anticipated the degree to which the internet, and now the internet of things, would explode across the globe and revolutionize nearly every facet of public and private life. Nor could anyone have predicted the degree to which it would establish an entirely new realm—cyberspace—through which States could engage in traditional, and not-so-traditional, statecraft and conflict. However, it is now clear that States have fully embraced cyber operations as a means to pursue their national interests and gain low-cost asymmetric advantages over their adversaries. Cyberspace has become a new instrument of statecraft and presents novel and challenging questions about the applicability of existing legal orders. Adversaries are leveraging and exploiting the numerous technical, policy, and legal ambiguities surrounding cyberspace operations to conduct a range of intrusive and increasing aggressive activities. While some of these cyber operations have been conducted as part of ongoing armed conflicts, the vast majority have taken place in the so-called gray zone—the far more uncertain space between war and peace. Also known as gray-zone challenges or gray-zone conflicts, these activities are more accurately understood as actions that are coercive and aggressive in nature and rise above normal, everyday peacetime geo-political competition, yet remain below the threshold of war. This chapter will identify and consider some of the more challenging domestic and international legal issues raised by the conduct of cyber operations in the gray zone between peace and war.Less
When the first host-to-host message was sent across the ARPANET in October 1969, few could have fully anticipated the degree to which the internet, and now the internet of things, would explode across the globe and revolutionize nearly every facet of public and private life. Nor could anyone have predicted the degree to which it would establish an entirely new realm—cyberspace—through which States could engage in traditional, and not-so-traditional, statecraft and conflict. However, it is now clear that States have fully embraced cyber operations as a means to pursue their national interests and gain low-cost asymmetric advantages over their adversaries. Cyberspace has become a new instrument of statecraft and presents novel and challenging questions about the applicability of existing legal orders. Adversaries are leveraging and exploiting the numerous technical, policy, and legal ambiguities surrounding cyberspace operations to conduct a range of intrusive and increasing aggressive activities. While some of these cyber operations have been conducted as part of ongoing armed conflicts, the vast majority have taken place in the so-called gray zone—the far more uncertain space between war and peace. Also known as gray-zone challenges or gray-zone conflicts, these activities are more accurately understood as actions that are coercive and aggressive in nature and rise above normal, everyday peacetime geo-political competition, yet remain below the threshold of war. This chapter will identify and consider some of the more challenging domestic and international legal issues raised by the conduct of cyber operations in the gray zone between peace and war.
Jure Zrilič
- Published in print:
- 2019
- Published Online:
- November 2019
- ISBN:
- 9780198830375
- eISBN:
- 9780191868634
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/oso/9780198830375.003.0005
- Subject:
- Law, Public International Law
This chapter explores the defence tools that a host state can use against conflict-related investment claims. The first part analyses security exceptions which have been introduced to investment ...
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This chapter explores the defence tools that a host state can use against conflict-related investment claims. The first part analyses security exceptions which have been introduced to investment protection law after the Second World War. While it is widely believed that such exceptions provide for the most persuasive safeguard of the state’s security interests, it is argued that their effectiveness will depend on the wording of the provision, determining their scope, the degree of autonomy given to a state in responding to a security threat, and their relationship with other treaty provisions. The chapter addresses these aspects. The second part focuses on the defences in the general law of state responsibility (necessity, force majeure, and countermeasures), explaining why their potential as a defence is limited.Less
This chapter explores the defence tools that a host state can use against conflict-related investment claims. The first part analyses security exceptions which have been introduced to investment protection law after the Second World War. While it is widely believed that such exceptions provide for the most persuasive safeguard of the state’s security interests, it is argued that their effectiveness will depend on the wording of the provision, determining their scope, the degree of autonomy given to a state in responding to a security threat, and their relationship with other treaty provisions. The chapter addresses these aspects. The second part focuses on the defences in the general law of state responsibility (necessity, force majeure, and countermeasures), explaining why their potential as a defence is limited.
Anniek de Ruijter
- Published in print:
- 2019
- Published Online:
- March 2019
- ISBN:
- 9780198788096
- eISBN:
- 9780191830075
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/oso/9780198788096.003.0005
- Subject:
- Law, EU Law
This chapter is a case study on the EU’s response to a public health emergency in the form of countermeasures. More specifically, the scope of the case study is the involvement of the EU in the ...
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This chapter is a case study on the EU’s response to a public health emergency in the form of countermeasures. More specifically, the scope of the case study is the involvement of the EU in the response to the outbreak of swine flu (influenza A H1N1) in 2009–10. The case study explores and maps legally the manner by which health policymaking can become strengthened through intertwining with more formal rules and the impact this may have for EU fundamental rights and values. It illustrates the growth and impact of EU health policy beyond legislative powers, where Member State engagement in EU health policymaking may have an impact beyond what is envisioned in law. The chapter first addresses how measures to counter a public health emergency can be taken at EU level, particularly focusing on the institutional actors. Second, the chapter identifies the countermeasures taken at EU level to combat the swine flu pandemic. Third, the chapter looks at the ways informal health policy (deliberately) intertwines with more formal regulation. Lastly, the impact of EU health law and policy in this particular case is analysed in terms of fundamental rights and values. The case study shows that the precarious balancing between public health and individual rights is not done by Member States alone.Less
This chapter is a case study on the EU’s response to a public health emergency in the form of countermeasures. More specifically, the scope of the case study is the involvement of the EU in the response to the outbreak of swine flu (influenza A H1N1) in 2009–10. The case study explores and maps legally the manner by which health policymaking can become strengthened through intertwining with more formal rules and the impact this may have for EU fundamental rights and values. It illustrates the growth and impact of EU health policy beyond legislative powers, where Member State engagement in EU health policymaking may have an impact beyond what is envisioned in law. The chapter first addresses how measures to counter a public health emergency can be taken at EU level, particularly focusing on the institutional actors. Second, the chapter identifies the countermeasures taken at EU level to combat the swine flu pandemic. Third, the chapter looks at the ways informal health policy (deliberately) intertwines with more formal regulation. Lastly, the impact of EU health law and policy in this particular case is analysed in terms of fundamental rights and values. The case study shows that the precarious balancing between public health and individual rights is not done by Member States alone.
