Gregory Graybill
- Published in print:
- 2010
- Published Online:
- September 2010
- ISBN:
- 9780199589487
- eISBN:
- 9780191594588
- Item type:
- book
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199589487.001.0001
- Subject:
- Religion, Church History
If one is saved by faith alone in Jesus Christ, then what is the origin of that faith? Is it a preordained gift of God to elect individuals, or is some measure of human free choice involved? ...
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If one is saved by faith alone in Jesus Christ, then what is the origin of that faith? Is it a preordained gift of God to elect individuals, or is some measure of human free choice involved? Initially, Philipp Melanchthon concurred with Martin Luther—that the human will is completely bound by sin, and that the choice of faith can flow only from God's unilateral grace. But if this is so, what about those whom God has not chosen? Is he not casting people into hell who never even had a chance? What are the pastoral implications for believers thinking about the nature of God and their own relationship to him? As a result of practical concerns such as these, aided by an intellectual aversion to paradox, Melanchthon came to believe that the human will does play a key role in the origins of a saving faith in Jesus Christ. This was not the Roman Catholic free will of Erasmus, however. It was a limited free will tied to justification by faith alone. It was an evangelical free will.Less
If one is saved by faith alone in Jesus Christ, then what is the origin of that faith? Is it a preordained gift of God to elect individuals, or is some measure of human free choice involved? Initially, Philipp Melanchthon concurred with Martin Luther—that the human will is completely bound by sin, and that the choice of faith can flow only from God's unilateral grace. But if this is so, what about those whom God has not chosen? Is he not casting people into hell who never even had a chance? What are the pastoral implications for believers thinking about the nature of God and their own relationship to him? As a result of practical concerns such as these, aided by an intellectual aversion to paradox, Melanchthon came to believe that the human will does play a key role in the origins of a saving faith in Jesus Christ. This was not the Roman Catholic free will of Erasmus, however. It was a limited free will tied to justification by faith alone. It was an evangelical free will.
Chris Bramall
- Published in print:
- 2006
- Published Online:
- January 2007
- ISBN:
- 9780199275939
- eISBN:
- 9780191706073
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199275939.003.0002
- Subject:
- Economics and Finance, South and East Asia
Rural industry developed quickly in China before 1978. One main factor was the massive programme of Third Front construction, which focused on creating modern industry in rural areas in western ...
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Rural industry developed quickly in China before 1978. One main factor was the massive programme of Third Front construction, which focused on creating modern industry in rural areas in western China. Rural industrial growth was given a further boost by the establishment of many state-owned enterprises in China’s counties during the 1960s, and by the growth of commune-run industry in the 1970s. Chinese rural industry may not have taken off before Mao’s death, but it was firmly established thanks to these state-led industrialization processes.Less
Rural industry developed quickly in China before 1978. One main factor was the massive programme of Third Front construction, which focused on creating modern industry in rural areas in western China. Rural industrial growth was given a further boost by the establishment of many state-owned enterprises in China’s counties during the 1960s, and by the growth of commune-run industry in the 1970s. Chinese rural industry may not have taken off before Mao’s death, but it was firmly established thanks to these state-led industrialization processes.
Judith Pallot
- Published in print:
- 1999
- Published Online:
- October 2011
- ISBN:
- 9780198206569
- eISBN:
- 9780191677212
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198206569.003.0009
- Subject:
- History, British and Irish Modern History
This book concludes that, notwithstanding the larger than expected numbers of peasant households coming forward to adopt the Stolypin Land Reform, the likelihood that an agricultural advance in ...
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This book concludes that, notwithstanding the larger than expected numbers of peasant households coming forward to adopt the Stolypin Land Reform, the likelihood that an agricultural advance in Russia would be based on the farms formed under the reform's provisions was limited. There were alternatives that might have done as much, or more, to increase peasant farm productivity, as has been observed by a number of historians. After 1910, the principal government effort in agriculture passed to agrotechnological measures which reached numbers of peasant households far in excess of those who could be reached through programmes targeted solely on enclosed farms. As for the peasants, their preferred solution to their problems remained, as it always had been, the black repartition, as was so obviously demonstrated in 1917. This book also shows that, in understanding the peasants' responses to the Stolypin Land Reform, both history and geography matter.Less
This book concludes that, notwithstanding the larger than expected numbers of peasant households coming forward to adopt the Stolypin Land Reform, the likelihood that an agricultural advance in Russia would be based on the farms formed under the reform's provisions was limited. There were alternatives that might have done as much, or more, to increase peasant farm productivity, as has been observed by a number of historians. After 1910, the principal government effort in agriculture passed to agrotechnological measures which reached numbers of peasant households far in excess of those who could be reached through programmes targeted solely on enclosed farms. As for the peasants, their preferred solution to their problems remained, as it always had been, the black repartition, as was so obviously demonstrated in 1917. This book also shows that, in understanding the peasants' responses to the Stolypin Land Reform, both history and geography matter.
Cees van Dam
- Published in print:
- 2007
- Published Online:
- January 2010
- ISBN:
- 9780199227679
- eISBN:
- 9780191710414
- Item type:
- book
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199227679.001.0001
- Subject:
- Law, EU Law
This is the first introductory text book to European tort law. It brings together national tort law, comparative law, European Union (EU) law, and human rights law, and provides insights into the ...
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This is the first introductory text book to European tort law. It brings together national tort law, comparative law, European Union (EU) law, and human rights law, and provides insights into the differences, commonalities, and mutual influence of the different tort law systems at work in Europe. The book examines the recent attempts for the harmonisation of the various systems of tortious liability by the discovery of a new European ius commune, and looks beyond the creation of ‘common codes’ to ask whether it is possible, or desirable, to converge the national models. The first part of the book provides overviews of the state of affairs of the tort law systems of France, Germany, England, and the EU. Comparisons are made between the rules, the cultures, and the policies of the various systems. The case for a European codification of tort law is discussed. The second part analyses and compares the requirements for liability in the various tort law systems: protected interests, negligence and unlawfulness, breach of statutory duty, stricter rules of liability, causation, damage, damages, and contributory negligence. The final part also assumes a comparative and a supranational point of view and shows how the national and European rules are applied in various ways in a number of categories, such as liability of public bodies, liability for defective products, for motor vehicles, for employees, for children, and for premises and highways.Less
This is the first introductory text book to European tort law. It brings together national tort law, comparative law, European Union (EU) law, and human rights law, and provides insights into the differences, commonalities, and mutual influence of the different tort law systems at work in Europe. The book examines the recent attempts for the harmonisation of the various systems of tortious liability by the discovery of a new European ius commune, and looks beyond the creation of ‘common codes’ to ask whether it is possible, or desirable, to converge the national models. The first part of the book provides overviews of the state of affairs of the tort law systems of France, Germany, England, and the EU. Comparisons are made between the rules, the cultures, and the policies of the various systems. The case for a European codification of tort law is discussed. The second part analyses and compares the requirements for liability in the various tort law systems: protected interests, negligence and unlawfulness, breach of statutory duty, stricter rules of liability, causation, damage, damages, and contributory negligence. The final part also assumes a comparative and a supranational point of view and shows how the national and European rules are applied in various ways in a number of categories, such as liability of public bodies, liability for defective products, for motor vehicles, for employees, for children, and for premises and highways.
Geoffrey Hosking
- Published in print:
- 2004
- Published Online:
- January 2012
- ISBN:
- 9780197263136
- eISBN:
- 9780191734922
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- British Academy
- DOI:
- 10.5871/bacad/9780197263136.003.0003
- Subject:
- Psychology, Social Psychology
Traditional interpretations of Russian society rest on a contrast between Russian authoritarianism and the liberties of Western societies. According to these interpretations, Russia right up to the ...
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Traditional interpretations of Russian society rest on a contrast between Russian authoritarianism and the liberties of Western societies. According to these interpretations, Russia right up to the twentieth century was a ‘patrimonial monarchy’ in which there was no distinction between sovereignty and ownership, so that the tsar's subjects were literally his slaves. There is no denying the highly authoritarian nature of the Russian state, and, in its twentieth-century hypostasis, its unique capacity to penetrate and affect the lives of ordinary people. But the image of slavery is overdone and partly misleading. At the base of the Russian power structure throughout the tsarist centuries was the village commune. The basic concept underlying the functioning of the village commune was krugovaya poruka, literally ‘circular surety’, but perhaps better translated as ‘joint responsibility’. This chapter discusses forms of social solidarity in Russia and the Soviet Union, focusing on the enterprise and the communal apartment as twin arenas of the daily lives of the majority of the country's townspeople.Less
Traditional interpretations of Russian society rest on a contrast between Russian authoritarianism and the liberties of Western societies. According to these interpretations, Russia right up to the twentieth century was a ‘patrimonial monarchy’ in which there was no distinction between sovereignty and ownership, so that the tsar's subjects were literally his slaves. There is no denying the highly authoritarian nature of the Russian state, and, in its twentieth-century hypostasis, its unique capacity to penetrate and affect the lives of ordinary people. But the image of slavery is overdone and partly misleading. At the base of the Russian power structure throughout the tsarist centuries was the village commune. The basic concept underlying the functioning of the village commune was krugovaya poruka, literally ‘circular surety’, but perhaps better translated as ‘joint responsibility’. This chapter discusses forms of social solidarity in Russia and the Soviet Union, focusing on the enterprise and the communal apartment as twin arenas of the daily lives of the majority of the country's townspeople.
Alena Ledeneva
- Published in print:
- 2004
- Published Online:
- January 2012
- ISBN:
- 9780197263136
- eISBN:
- 9780191734922
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- British Academy
- DOI:
- 10.5871/bacad/9780197263136.003.0005
- Subject:
- Psychology, Social Psychology
Russia is characterized by a high degree of interpersonal trust, reflected in the fundamental divide between us/insiders (svoi) and them/outsiders (chuzhie), with a consequent gap in ethical ...
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Russia is characterized by a high degree of interpersonal trust, reflected in the fundamental divide between us/insiders (svoi) and them/outsiders (chuzhie), with a consequent gap in ethical standards. If the lack of an impersonal system of trust in post-Communist Russia is often explained by the imperfection of newly built institutions that are not trusted for a good reason, the prevalence of strong interpersonal ties is normally linked to Russia's political culture. This chapter argues that imposed forms of cooperation, whether within a peasant community, work collective, or personal network, have produced a form of interpersonal trust associated with a rather compelling form of solidarity–krugovaya poruka–which is most commonly associated with the peasant communes of pre-revolutionary Russia. This chapter examines the origins of krugovaya poruka, taxation and krugovaya poruka, legislation on krugovaya poruka, the abolition of krugovaya poruka, Soviet bureaucracy and krugovaya poruka, and krugovaya poruka in the post-Soviet context.Less
Russia is characterized by a high degree of interpersonal trust, reflected in the fundamental divide between us/insiders (svoi) and them/outsiders (chuzhie), with a consequent gap in ethical standards. If the lack of an impersonal system of trust in post-Communist Russia is often explained by the imperfection of newly built institutions that are not trusted for a good reason, the prevalence of strong interpersonal ties is normally linked to Russia's political culture. This chapter argues that imposed forms of cooperation, whether within a peasant community, work collective, or personal network, have produced a form of interpersonal trust associated with a rather compelling form of solidarity–krugovaya poruka–which is most commonly associated with the peasant communes of pre-revolutionary Russia. This chapter examines the origins of krugovaya poruka, taxation and krugovaya poruka, legislation on krugovaya poruka, the abolition of krugovaya poruka, Soviet bureaucracy and krugovaya poruka, and krugovaya poruka in the post-Soviet context.
Wendy S. Mercer
- Published in print:
- 2007
- Published Online:
- January 2012
- ISBN:
- 9780197263884
- eISBN:
- 9780191734830
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- British Academy
- DOI:
- 10.5871/bacad/9780197263884.003.0013
- Subject:
- Literature, 19th-century and Victorian Literature
The year 1870 proved momentous both in terms of French life and history and for Marmier personally. His joy at being elected to the Académie française was set against the grim backdrop of the ...
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The year 1870 proved momentous both in terms of French life and history and for Marmier personally. His joy at being elected to the Académie française was set against the grim backdrop of the Franco–Prussian War, the Siege of Paris, and the bloodbaths at the end of the Commune. Marmier suffered from pneumonia, which kept him in bed for two months. On 19 May, he was elected to fill the seat vacated by Pongerville in the Academy.Less
The year 1870 proved momentous both in terms of French life and history and for Marmier personally. His joy at being elected to the Académie française was set against the grim backdrop of the Franco–Prussian War, the Siege of Paris, and the bloodbaths at the end of the Commune. Marmier suffered from pneumonia, which kept him in bed for two months. On 19 May, he was elected to fill the seat vacated by Pongerville in the Academy.
Nils Jansen
- Published in print:
- 2010
- Published Online:
- May 2010
- ISBN:
- 9780199588763
- eISBN:
- 9780191723315
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199588763.003.0002
- Subject:
- Law, Philosophy of Law
This chapter traces the historical connections between the law and the state. Topics covered include codifications and the state, textual foundations of the ius commune, and legislative codifications ...
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This chapter traces the historical connections between the law and the state. Topics covered include codifications and the state, textual foundations of the ius commune, and legislative codifications and the legal profession. It shows that even in more recent times, it was often the legal profession, rather than the political legislator, which ultimately determined the sources of the law and their authority in legal discourse.Less
This chapter traces the historical connections between the law and the state. Topics covered include codifications and the state, textual foundations of the ius commune, and legislative codifications and the legal profession. It shows that even in more recent times, it was often the legal profession, rather than the political legislator, which ultimately determined the sources of the law and their authority in legal discourse.
Gregory B. Graybill
- Published in print:
- 2010
- Published Online:
- September 2010
- ISBN:
- 9780199589487
- eISBN:
- 9780191594588
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199589487.003.0004
- Subject:
- Religion, Church History
In 1519, Melanchthon insisted on the bondage of the will as the result of both the divine determination of all things, and the Fall. However, over the next few years, his formulations became less ...
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In 1519, Melanchthon insisted on the bondage of the will as the result of both the divine determination of all things, and the Fall. However, over the next few years, his formulations became less stringent. This is traced through the first edition of the Loci communes (1519–22), and the Annotations on Romans of 1522.Less
In 1519, Melanchthon insisted on the bondage of the will as the result of both the divine determination of all things, and the Fall. However, over the next few years, his formulations became less stringent. This is traced through the first edition of the Loci communes (1519–22), and the Annotations on Romans of 1522.
Gregory B. Graybill
- Published in print:
- 2010
- Published Online:
- September 2010
- ISBN:
- 9780199589487
- eISBN:
- 9780191594588
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199589487.003.0008
- Subject:
- Religion, Church History
In his Commentary on Romans of 1532, Melanchthon began to teach that the human will had limited freedom in both the temporal and spiritual realms. He further fleshed this out in the Loci communes of ...
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In his Commentary on Romans of 1532, Melanchthon began to teach that the human will had limited freedom in both the temporal and spiritual realms. He further fleshed this out in the Loci communes of 1533–5, where he articulated an evangelical doctrine of free will—meaning that the will (in conjunction with the Word and Spirit) had some freedom in the choice of faith in Jesus, but that such a decision was then still tied to a doctrine of forensic justification by imputed righteousness.Less
In his Commentary on Romans of 1532, Melanchthon began to teach that the human will had limited freedom in both the temporal and spiritual realms. He further fleshed this out in the Loci communes of 1533–5, where he articulated an evangelical doctrine of free will—meaning that the will (in conjunction with the Word and Spirit) had some freedom in the choice of faith in Jesus, but that such a decision was then still tied to a doctrine of forensic justification by imputed righteousness.
Gregory B. Graybill
- Published in print:
- 2010
- Published Online:
- September 2010
- ISBN:
- 9780199589487
- eISBN:
- 9780191594588
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199589487.003.0009
- Subject:
- Religion, Church History
In the late 1530s, Melanchthon's new formulation of the will's role in justification came under criticism from Conrad Cordatus and John Calvin. As the 1540s began, Melanchthon continued to clarify ...
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In the late 1530s, Melanchthon's new formulation of the will's role in justification came under criticism from Conrad Cordatus and John Calvin. As the 1540s began, Melanchthon continued to clarify his new doctrinal system. Of particular significance was his redefinition of predestination not as God's election of individuals, but as God's corporate election of the church as body—a body which individuals could freely join or leave through the choice of faith in Christ. Meanwhile, at the Council of Trent, the Roman Catholic Church affirmed a transformational model of justification similar to that which Erasmus had advocated.Less
In the late 1530s, Melanchthon's new formulation of the will's role in justification came under criticism from Conrad Cordatus and John Calvin. As the 1540s began, Melanchthon continued to clarify his new doctrinal system. Of particular significance was his redefinition of predestination not as God's election of individuals, but as God's corporate election of the church as body—a body which individuals could freely join or leave through the choice of faith in Christ. Meanwhile, at the Council of Trent, the Roman Catholic Church affirmed a transformational model of justification similar to that which Erasmus had advocated.
Peter Starr
- Published in print:
- 2006
- Published Online:
- September 2011
- ISBN:
- 9780823226030
- eISBN:
- 9780823240920
- Item type:
- book
- Publisher:
- Fordham University Press
- DOI:
- 10.5422/fordham/9780823226030.001.0001
- Subject:
- Literature, European Literature
Nothing says more about a culture than the way it responds to deeply traumatic events. The Reign of Terror, America's Civil War, the Holocaust, Hiroshima and Nagasaki, the Kennedy assassination, ...
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Nothing says more about a culture than the way it responds to deeply traumatic events. The Reign of Terror, America's Civil War, the Holocaust, Hiroshima and Nagasaki, the Kennedy assassination, September 11th—watershed moments such as these can be rich sounding boards for the cultural historian patient enough to tease out the traumatic event's complex cultural resonances. This book is about one such moment in the history of modern France. The so-called Terrible Year began with the French army's crushing defeat at Sedan and the fall of the Second Empire in September of 1870, followed by the Prussian occupation of France and first siege of Paris in the fall and winter of that year. But no event of the period proved as deeply traumatic as the Paris Commune of 1871 and the bloody reprisals that attended its demise. This book examines the conundrum of why French literary, historical and philosophical texts written in the aftermath of the Paris Commune so often employ the trope of confusion (in both the phenomenal and cognitive senses of that term) to register and work through the historical traumas of the Terrible Year? And how might these representations of confusion both reflect and inflect the confusions inherent to an ongoing process of social upheaval evident in late nineteenth-century France—a process whose benchmarks include democratization and the blurring of social classes, a persistent and evolving revolutionism, radical reconfigurations of the city as lived environment, and the development of specifically capitalist logics of commerce?Less
Nothing says more about a culture than the way it responds to deeply traumatic events. The Reign of Terror, America's Civil War, the Holocaust, Hiroshima and Nagasaki, the Kennedy assassination, September 11th—watershed moments such as these can be rich sounding boards for the cultural historian patient enough to tease out the traumatic event's complex cultural resonances. This book is about one such moment in the history of modern France. The so-called Terrible Year began with the French army's crushing defeat at Sedan and the fall of the Second Empire in September of 1870, followed by the Prussian occupation of France and first siege of Paris in the fall and winter of that year. But no event of the period proved as deeply traumatic as the Paris Commune of 1871 and the bloody reprisals that attended its demise. This book examines the conundrum of why French literary, historical and philosophical texts written in the aftermath of the Paris Commune so often employ the trope of confusion (in both the phenomenal and cognitive senses of that term) to register and work through the historical traumas of the Terrible Year? And how might these representations of confusion both reflect and inflect the confusions inherent to an ongoing process of social upheaval evident in late nineteenth-century France—a process whose benchmarks include democratization and the blurring of social classes, a persistent and evolving revolutionism, radical reconfigurations of the city as lived environment, and the development of specifically capitalist logics of commerce?
Gregory B. Graybill
- Published in print:
- 2010
- Published Online:
- September 2010
- ISBN:
- 9780199589487
- eISBN:
- 9780191594588
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199589487.003.0010
- Subject:
- Religion, Church History
In the aftermath of the Protestant loss of the Schmalkaldic War, Melanchthon was faced with new challenges—including fielding energetic attacks from Matthias Flacius Illyricus. Another challenge ...
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In the aftermath of the Protestant loss of the Schmalkaldic War, Melanchthon was faced with new challenges—including fielding energetic attacks from Matthias Flacius Illyricus. Another challenge included attempting to continue to be a key support to evangelical churches. To this end, he wrote the Saxon Confession (1551), which also served as a rebuttal to the Council of Trent. The Examination of Ordinands (1552, German edition) followed, along with a fourth edition of the Loci communes (1553). Melanchthon was coming under increasing attack from Protestants and Catholics alike, and in 1551–2, as a result of the Bolsec Affair, Calvin publicly distanced himself from Melanchthon. Nevertheless, Melanchthon continued to promote his doctrine of evangelical free will—limited freedom in choosing to trust in Christ, followed by forensic justification.Less
In the aftermath of the Protestant loss of the Schmalkaldic War, Melanchthon was faced with new challenges—including fielding energetic attacks from Matthias Flacius Illyricus. Another challenge included attempting to continue to be a key support to evangelical churches. To this end, he wrote the Saxon Confession (1551), which also served as a rebuttal to the Council of Trent. The Examination of Ordinands (1552, German edition) followed, along with a fourth edition of the Loci communes (1553). Melanchthon was coming under increasing attack from Protestants and Catholics alike, and in 1551–2, as a result of the Bolsec Affair, Calvin publicly distanced himself from Melanchthon. Nevertheless, Melanchthon continued to promote his doctrine of evangelical free will—limited freedom in choosing to trust in Christ, followed by forensic justification.
M. E. Bratchel
- Published in print:
- 2008
- Published Online:
- January 2009
- ISBN:
- 9780199542901
- eISBN:
- 9780191715655
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199542901.003.0003
- Subject:
- History, British and Irish Modern History
This chapter considers and explains the precociousness of the political and administrative structures of the Lucchese state. From a very early period the Sei Miglia (the plain immediately around the ...
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This chapter considers and explains the precociousness of the political and administrative structures of the Lucchese state. From a very early period the Sei Miglia (the plain immediately around the city) was ruled by officials called podestà, who were appointed and sent out by Lucca. These podestà soon disappeared, and the Sei Miglia came to be ruled without intermediary institutions—directly from the city. Village officials were gradually reduced to the role of collecting taxes, receiving orders, and reporting offenders to the city courts. By the late 13th century, at a time when in other city‐states the mountains were ruled by a ramshackle array of local lords, leagues, captains, podestà, and vicars, the mountains around Lucca were already reduced to a discrete number of territorial vicariates, each headed by a vicar, accompanied by a judge and by a retinue of notaries—all citizens; all appointed from Lucca; all appointed for a short period of office, which was not to exceed six months. Firm urban control is attributed both to the legacy of the city's earlier history and to more recent political developments during and after the reign of the Emperor Frederick I.Less
This chapter considers and explains the precociousness of the political and administrative structures of the Lucchese state. From a very early period the Sei Miglia (the plain immediately around the city) was ruled by officials called podestà, who were appointed and sent out by Lucca. These podestà soon disappeared, and the Sei Miglia came to be ruled without intermediary institutions—directly from the city. Village officials were gradually reduced to the role of collecting taxes, receiving orders, and reporting offenders to the city courts. By the late 13th century, at a time when in other city‐states the mountains were ruled by a ramshackle array of local lords, leagues, captains, podestà, and vicars, the mountains around Lucca were already reduced to a discrete number of territorial vicariates, each headed by a vicar, accompanied by a judge and by a retinue of notaries—all citizens; all appointed from Lucca; all appointed for a short period of office, which was not to exceed six months. Firm urban control is attributed both to the legacy of the city's earlier history and to more recent political developments during and after the reign of the Emperor Frederick I.
Maurizio Viroli
- Published in print:
- 2012
- Published Online:
- October 2017
- ISBN:
- 9780691142357
- eISBN:
- 9781400845514
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Princeton University Press
- DOI:
- 10.23943/princeton/9780691142357.003.0002
- Subject:
- Political Science, Political Theory
This chapter focuses on the religious dimension of communes that emerged in northern and central Italy in the eleventh and twelfth centuries. The assemblies of citizens that gave birth to the ...
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This chapter focuses on the religious dimension of communes that emerged in northern and central Italy in the eleventh and twelfth centuries. The assemblies of citizens that gave birth to the communes gathered in churches. Even when public authorities built their own palaces, public council meetings were always preceded by religious ritual. Furthermore, the communes contributed to consecrating the city through paintings and sculptures of the saints, especially those patron saints who had defended the community from external or internal enemies, and hence had an explicitly civic meaning. The cities were religious, and so were the communes. The communes' religious identity and republicanism went hand in hand, and together engendered a republican religion.Less
This chapter focuses on the religious dimension of communes that emerged in northern and central Italy in the eleventh and twelfth centuries. The assemblies of citizens that gave birth to the communes gathered in churches. Even when public authorities built their own palaces, public council meetings were always preceded by religious ritual. Furthermore, the communes contributed to consecrating the city through paintings and sculptures of the saints, especially those patron saints who had defended the community from external or internal enemies, and hence had an explicitly civic meaning. The cities were religious, and so were the communes. The communes' religious identity and republicanism went hand in hand, and together engendered a republican religion.
Joseph Chan
- Published in print:
- 2013
- Published Online:
- October 2017
- ISBN:
- 9780691158617
- eISBN:
- 9781400848690
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Princeton University Press
- DOI:
- 10.23943/princeton/9780691158617.003.0009
- Subject:
- Political Science, Political Theory
This chapter looks at how Mencius envisions a multilevel social system of provision in which the family, the village or commune, as well as the government all have specific roles to play. Social ...
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This chapter looks at how Mencius envisions a multilevel social system of provision in which the family, the village or commune, as well as the government all have specific roles to play. Social justice is the foundation of this social system; the family and commune (or social relationships and networks) provide familial care and mutual aid; and when they are not sufficient, the government steps in to provide direct welfare assistance. This Confucian social ideal integrates justice and care, recognizing both individual merit and personal responsibility. Mencius's vision is not of a nanny state that takes care of every aspect of people's lives from the cradle to the grave, but of a social system regulated by several principles, such as sufficiency, personal responsibility, merit, and contribution.Less
This chapter looks at how Mencius envisions a multilevel social system of provision in which the family, the village or commune, as well as the government all have specific roles to play. Social justice is the foundation of this social system; the family and commune (or social relationships and networks) provide familial care and mutual aid; and when they are not sufficient, the government steps in to provide direct welfare assistance. This Confucian social ideal integrates justice and care, recognizing both individual merit and personal responsibility. Mencius's vision is not of a nanny state that takes care of every aspect of people's lives from the cradle to the grave, but of a social system regulated by several principles, such as sufficiency, personal responsibility, merit, and contribution.
Tom Scott
- Published in print:
- 2012
- Published Online:
- May 2012
- ISBN:
- 9780199274604
- eISBN:
- 9780191738685
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199274604.003.0002
- Subject:
- History, British and Irish Medieval History
Europe in 1000 is a vantage‐point, not a starting‐point: the chapter emphasizes continuities in the recovery of urban life, commerce, and population in Europe, especially the Mediterranean. ...
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Europe in 1000 is a vantage‐point, not a starting‐point: the chapter emphasizes continuities in the recovery of urban life, commerce, and population in Europe, especially the Mediterranean. City‐states are an outgrowth of the wider appearance of urban communes throughout Europe. The chapter therefore criticizes customary accounts of the flowering of central and northern Italian communes, pointing to similar developments in the Low Countries or the Upper Rhine. It examines the failure of the south Italian cities to develop into city‐states. In northern Italy, the chapter stresses the role of churchmen in promoting civic life and autonomy, especially during the age of church reform and the Investiture Contest. The chapter also examines the rise of Novgorod.Less
Europe in 1000 is a vantage‐point, not a starting‐point: the chapter emphasizes continuities in the recovery of urban life, commerce, and population in Europe, especially the Mediterranean. City‐states are an outgrowth of the wider appearance of urban communes throughout Europe. The chapter therefore criticizes customary accounts of the flowering of central and northern Italian communes, pointing to similar developments in the Low Countries or the Upper Rhine. It examines the failure of the south Italian cities to develop into city‐states. In northern Italy, the chapter stresses the role of churchmen in promoting civic life and autonomy, especially during the age of church reform and the Investiture Contest. The chapter also examines the rise of Novgorod.
David C. Steinmetz
- Published in print:
- 2001
- Published Online:
- November 2003
- ISBN:
- 9780195130485
- eISBN:
- 9780199869008
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/0195130480.003.0007
- Subject:
- Religion, History of Christianity
Melanchthon was one of Martin Luther's closest associates in Wittenberg and the author of the Augsburg Confession, numerous commentaries on the Bible (including five commentaries on Romans), ...
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Melanchthon was one of Martin Luther's closest associates in Wittenberg and the author of the Augsburg Confession, numerous commentaries on the Bible (including five commentaries on Romans), commentaries on Aristotle, and an important and much revised theological handbook, the Loci Communes. He was accused by some of Luther's disciples, the so‐called Gnesio‐Lutherans, of sharply modifying or even betraying the heritage of Luther in a series of controversies over free will, justification, the Lord's Supper (or Eucharist), and adiaphora. Melanchthon clearly did differ with Luther on several issues, including the positive role he gave to philosophy and what he called the “method of Paul” (methodus Pauli).Less
Melanchthon was one of Martin Luther's closest associates in Wittenberg and the author of the Augsburg Confession, numerous commentaries on the Bible (including five commentaries on Romans), commentaries on Aristotle, and an important and much revised theological handbook, the Loci Communes. He was accused by some of Luther's disciples, the so‐called Gnesio‐Lutherans, of sharply modifying or even betraying the heritage of Luther in a series of controversies over free will, justification, the Lord's Supper (or Eucharist), and adiaphora. Melanchthon clearly did differ with Luther on several issues, including the positive role he gave to philosophy and what he called the “method of Paul” (methodus Pauli).
Siân Reynolds
- Published in print:
- 2012
- Published Online:
- September 2012
- ISBN:
- 9780199560424
- eISBN:
- 9780191741814
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199560424.003.0022
- Subject:
- History, European Early Modern History, Cultural History
The ministers cooperate over emergency measures, but invasion fears trigger the September massacres in Paris: impromptu trials and brutal executions of many prisoners, including clerics or common law ...
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The ministers cooperate over emergency measures, but invasion fears trigger the September massacres in Paris: impromptu trials and brutal executions of many prisoners, including clerics or common law offenders, suspected of a ‘prison plot’. The Paris Commune (municipality) of 10 August appears to approve the massacres, issuing arrest warrants (not pursued) for Roland and Brissot. Authorities, including Roland and Danton – who do not see eye to eye – fail to stop the killings, but Roland speaks out publicly on 3 September: the validity of accusations of his complicity or tolerance are discussed. These events underlie later conflict between the Paris Commune and the Interior minister. Roland, elected to the Convention for the Somme, chooses instead to stay at ministry: his reasons are discussed here and below. Invasion fears are quietened by the battle of Valmy.Less
The ministers cooperate over emergency measures, but invasion fears trigger the September massacres in Paris: impromptu trials and brutal executions of many prisoners, including clerics or common law offenders, suspected of a ‘prison plot’. The Paris Commune (municipality) of 10 August appears to approve the massacres, issuing arrest warrants (not pursued) for Roland and Brissot. Authorities, including Roland and Danton – who do not see eye to eye – fail to stop the killings, but Roland speaks out publicly on 3 September: the validity of accusations of his complicity or tolerance are discussed. These events underlie later conflict between the Paris Commune and the Interior minister. Roland, elected to the Convention for the Somme, chooses instead to stay at ministry: his reasons are discussed here and below. Invasion fears are quietened by the battle of Valmy.
Ian Forrest
- Published in print:
- 2005
- Published Online:
- September 2007
- ISBN:
- 9780199286928
- eISBN:
- 9780191713217
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199286928.003.0003
- Subject:
- History, British and Irish Medieval History
This chapter sets out the basic structures within which heresy-detection took place, looking at the cooperation and conflicts between church and crown, and the conduct of investigations by bishops, ...
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This chapter sets out the basic structures within which heresy-detection took place, looking at the cooperation and conflicts between church and crown, and the conduct of investigations by bishops, inquisitors, royal justices, and other officers. The nature of the ius commune is outlined and the implications of the Stubbs-Maitland dispute drawn out. Encroachment on heresy jurisdiction by royal justices is discussed, as is the use of episcopal visitation against heresy and the question of whether there was a papal inquisition in England.Less
This chapter sets out the basic structures within which heresy-detection took place, looking at the cooperation and conflicts between church and crown, and the conduct of investigations by bishops, inquisitors, royal justices, and other officers. The nature of the ius commune is outlined and the implications of the Stubbs-Maitland dispute drawn out. Encroachment on heresy jurisdiction by royal justices is discussed, as is the use of episcopal visitation against heresy and the question of whether there was a papal inquisition in England.
