Christopher Hood and Martin Lodge
- Published in print:
- 2006
- Published Online:
- September 2006
- ISBN:
- 9780199269679
- eISBN:
- 9780191604096
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/019926967X.003.0007
- Subject:
- Political Science, Comparative Politics
The first part of this chapter brings together the earlier analysis and considers combinations of public service bargains, suggesting there are many possible combinations, but also some elements that ...
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The first part of this chapter brings together the earlier analysis and considers combinations of public service bargains, suggesting there are many possible combinations, but also some elements that do not seem to mix effectively. It then goes on to show how the various dimensions of PSBs have combined over time in two state traditions, Germany and the UK. It shows how a PSB lens can be utilized in different historical perspectives, ranging from the long-term perspective covering two centuries to the analysis of the past two decades.Less
The first part of this chapter brings together the earlier analysis and considers combinations of public service bargains, suggesting there are many possible combinations, but also some elements that do not seem to mix effectively. It then goes on to show how the various dimensions of PSBs have combined over time in two state traditions, Germany and the UK. It shows how a PSB lens can be utilized in different historical perspectives, ranging from the long-term perspective covering two centuries to the analysis of the past two decades.
Patrick R. Laughlin
- Published in print:
- 2011
- Published Online:
- October 2017
- ISBN:
- 9780691147918
- eISBN:
- 9781400836673
- Item type:
- book
- Publisher:
- Princeton University Press
- DOI:
- 10.23943/princeton/9780691147918.001.0001
- Subject:
- Psychology, Social Psychology
Experimental research by social and cognitive psychologists has established that cooperative groups solve a wide range of problems better than individuals. Cooperative problem solving groups of ...
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Experimental research by social and cognitive psychologists has established that cooperative groups solve a wide range of problems better than individuals. Cooperative problem solving groups of scientific researchers, auditors, financial analysts, air crash investigators, and forensic art experts are increasingly important in our complex and interdependent society. This comprehensive textbook presents important theories and experimental research about group problem solving. The book focuses on tasks that have demonstrably correct solutions within mathematical, logical, scientific, or verbal systems, including algebra problems, analogies, vocabulary, and logical reasoning problems. It explores basic concepts in group problem solving, social combination models, group memory, group ability and world knowledge tasks, rule induction problems, letters-to-numbers problems, evidence for positive group-to-individual transfer, and social choice theory. The conclusion proposes ten generalizations that are supported by the theory and research on group problem solving. The book is an essential resource for decision-making research in social and cognitive psychology, but also extremely relevant to multidisciplinary and multicultural problem-solving teams in organizational behavior, business administration, management, and behavioral economics.Less
Experimental research by social and cognitive psychologists has established that cooperative groups solve a wide range of problems better than individuals. Cooperative problem solving groups of scientific researchers, auditors, financial analysts, air crash investigators, and forensic art experts are increasingly important in our complex and interdependent society. This comprehensive textbook presents important theories and experimental research about group problem solving. The book focuses on tasks that have demonstrably correct solutions within mathematical, logical, scientific, or verbal systems, including algebra problems, analogies, vocabulary, and logical reasoning problems. It explores basic concepts in group problem solving, social combination models, group memory, group ability and world knowledge tasks, rule induction problems, letters-to-numbers problems, evidence for positive group-to-individual transfer, and social choice theory. The conclusion proposes ten generalizations that are supported by the theory and research on group problem solving. The book is an essential resource for decision-making research in social and cognitive psychology, but also extremely relevant to multidisciplinary and multicultural problem-solving teams in organizational behavior, business administration, management, and behavioral economics.
Patrick R. Laughlin
- Published in print:
- 2011
- Published Online:
- October 2017
- ISBN:
- 9780691147918
- eISBN:
- 9781400836673
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Princeton University Press
- DOI:
- 10.23943/princeton/9780691147918.003.0002
- Subject:
- Psychology, Social Psychology
This chapter studies the historical development of social combination models. The social combination approach assumes that groups combine the group member preferences by some process to formulate a ...
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This chapter studies the historical development of social combination models. The social combination approach assumes that groups combine the group member preferences by some process to formulate a single collective group response. A social decision scheme formalizes any assumption about the group process that assigns probabilities of each group response given each distribution of member preferences. The assumptions may come from the constitutions or bylaws of a group, from previous research, or any other hypothesized group process. Different social decision schemes or social combination models may then be tested competitively against actual group performance as a test of the assumptions formalized by the social decision schemes. Stasser gives an excellent overall presentation of social decision scheme theory, including model formation, model testing, and using the equations for prospective modeling.Less
This chapter studies the historical development of social combination models. The social combination approach assumes that groups combine the group member preferences by some process to formulate a single collective group response. A social decision scheme formalizes any assumption about the group process that assigns probabilities of each group response given each distribution of member preferences. The assumptions may come from the constitutions or bylaws of a group, from previous research, or any other hypothesized group process. Different social decision schemes or social combination models may then be tested competitively against actual group performance as a test of the assumptions formalized by the social decision schemes. Stasser gives an excellent overall presentation of social decision scheme theory, including model formation, model testing, and using the equations for prospective modeling.
Patrick R. Laughlin
- Published in print:
- 2011
- Published Online:
- October 2017
- ISBN:
- 9780691147918
- eISBN:
- 9781400836673
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Princeton University Press
- DOI:
- 10.23943/princeton/9780691147918.003.0004
- Subject:
- Psychology, Social Psychology
This chapter examines group ability composition and social combination processes on world knowledge tasks. On difficult world knowledge tasks, high-ability persons performed better in cooperative ...
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This chapter examines group ability composition and social combination processes on world knowledge tasks. On difficult world knowledge tasks, high-ability persons performed better in cooperative groups with other high-ability members than they did alone, and this difference increased with group size. In contrast, low-ability persons did not perform better in cooperative groups with other low-ability members than they did alone, and there was little improvement as group size increased. Low-ability members contributed very little unique information to one another and virtually none to high-ability members. Medium-ability members displayed an intermediate pattern that was more like low-ability than high-ability members. Consequently, the performance of groups of mixed high-ability, medium-ability, and low-ability members was basically proportional to the number of high-ability members: the greater the proportion of high-ability members, the better the group performance.Less
This chapter examines group ability composition and social combination processes on world knowledge tasks. On difficult world knowledge tasks, high-ability persons performed better in cooperative groups with other high-ability members than they did alone, and this difference increased with group size. In contrast, low-ability persons did not perform better in cooperative groups with other low-ability members than they did alone, and there was little improvement as group size increased. Low-ability members contributed very little unique information to one another and virtually none to high-ability members. Medium-ability members displayed an intermediate pattern that was more like low-ability than high-ability members. Consequently, the performance of groups of mixed high-ability, medium-ability, and low-ability members was basically proportional to the number of high-ability members: the greater the proportion of high-ability members, the better the group performance.
Johan F. M. Swinnen
- Published in print:
- 2006
- Published Online:
- May 2006
- ISBN:
- 9780199288915
- eISBN:
- 9780191603518
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/0199288917.003.0011
- Subject:
- Economics and Finance, Development, Growth, and Environmental
This chapter draws several lessons from the analysis: (a) performance measurement, (b) the causes of success and failure of transition, particularly the importance of initial conditions, and (c) why ...
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This chapter draws several lessons from the analysis: (a) performance measurement, (b) the causes of success and failure of transition, particularly the importance of initial conditions, and (c) why some policy combinations were more successful than others.Less
This chapter draws several lessons from the analysis: (a) performance measurement, (b) the causes of success and failure of transition, particularly the importance of initial conditions, and (c) why some policy combinations were more successful than others.
San Duanmu
- Published in print:
- 2008
- Published Online:
- January 2009
- ISBN:
- 9780199267590
- eISBN:
- 9780191708367
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199267590.003.0004
- Subject:
- Linguistics, Phonetics / Phonology, Theoretical Linguistics
Chinese is well known for having a simple syllable structure, clear syllable boundaries, and a small syllable inventory. This chapter examines what its structure is and what constraints influence ...
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Chinese is well known for having a simple syllable structure, clear syllable boundaries, and a small syllable inventory. This chapter examines what its structure is and what constraints influence occurring and non‐occurring syllables.Less
Chinese is well known for having a simple syllable structure, clear syllable boundaries, and a small syllable inventory. This chapter examines what its structure is and what constraints influence occurring and non‐occurring syllables.
C. Neal Stewart
- Published in print:
- 2004
- Published Online:
- September 2007
- ISBN:
- 9780195157451
- eISBN:
- 9780199790388
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195157451.003.0010
- Subject:
- Biology, Biotechnology
The first generation of transgenic plants had only one or two transgenes inserted, but future products will have several transgenes stacked together in single plants. The best way to assess risks ...
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The first generation of transgenic plants had only one or two transgenes inserted, but future products will have several transgenes stacked together in single plants. The best way to assess risks remains unclear. Currently, the USDA looks at individual transgenic events (i.e., unique transgene placement within the plant genome) and this situation might change as trait combinations become more prevalent. However, regulations might be too hyperfocused on the transgenes themselves when it is the traits that really matter. Even in transgenic stacking scenarios, perhaps 10 new transgenes will be added to a genomic background of 30,000 genes. Genomes are quite resilient. Studies have shown that adding fitness-related transgenes that necessarily carry with them hitchhiking crop genes during repeated hybridizations appear to dilute weedy genomes, resulting in transgenic weeds that are not as competitive as non-transgenic weeds.Less
The first generation of transgenic plants had only one or two transgenes inserted, but future products will have several transgenes stacked together in single plants. The best way to assess risks remains unclear. Currently, the USDA looks at individual transgenic events (i.e., unique transgene placement within the plant genome) and this situation might change as trait combinations become more prevalent. However, regulations might be too hyperfocused on the transgenes themselves when it is the traits that really matter. Even in transgenic stacking scenarios, perhaps 10 new transgenes will be added to a genomic background of 30,000 genes. Genomes are quite resilient. Studies have shown that adding fitness-related transgenes that necessarily carry with them hitchhiking crop genes during repeated hybridizations appear to dilute weedy genomes, resulting in transgenic weeds that are not as competitive as non-transgenic weeds.
Julia Trommershäuser, Konrad Kording, and Michael S. Landy (eds)
- Published in print:
- 2011
- Published Online:
- September 2012
- ISBN:
- 9780195387247
- eISBN:
- 9780199918379
- Item type:
- book
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195387247.001.0001
- Subject:
- Psychology, Cognitive Neuroscience, Cognitive Psychology
This book provides an introduction into both computational models and experimental paradigms that are concerned with sensory cue integration both within and between sensory modalities. Importantly, ...
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This book provides an introduction into both computational models and experimental paradigms that are concerned with sensory cue integration both within and between sensory modalities. Importantly, across behavioral, electrophysiological, and theoretical approaches, Bayesian statistics is emerging as a common language in which cue-combination problems can be expressed. This book focuses on the emerging probabilistic way of thinking about these problems. These approaches derive from the realization that all our sensors are noisy and moreover are often affected by ambiguity. For example, mechanoreceptor outputs are variable and they cannot distinguish if a perceived force is caused by the weight of an object or by force we are producing ourselves. The computational approaches described in this book aim at formalizing the uncertainty of cues. They describe cue combination as the nervous system's attempt to minimize uncertainty in its estimates and to choose successful actions. Some computational approaches described in the chapters of this book are concerned with the application of such statistical ideas to real-world cue-combination problems, such as shape and depth perception. Other parts of the book ask how uncertainty may be represented in the nervous system and used for cue combination. The broadening scope of probabilistic approaches to cue combination is highlighted in the breadth of topics covered: the chapters summarize and discuss computational approaches and behavioral evidence aimed at understanding the combination of visual, auditory, proprioceptive, and haptic cues. Some chapters address the combination of cues within a single sensory modality while others address the combination across sensory modalities. Neural implementation, behavior, and theory are considered. The unifying aspect of this book is the focus on the uncertainty intrinsic to sensory cues and the underlying question of how the nervous system deals with this uncertainty.Less
This book provides an introduction into both computational models and experimental paradigms that are concerned with sensory cue integration both within and between sensory modalities. Importantly, across behavioral, electrophysiological, and theoretical approaches, Bayesian statistics is emerging as a common language in which cue-combination problems can be expressed. This book focuses on the emerging probabilistic way of thinking about these problems. These approaches derive from the realization that all our sensors are noisy and moreover are often affected by ambiguity. For example, mechanoreceptor outputs are variable and they cannot distinguish if a perceived force is caused by the weight of an object or by force we are producing ourselves. The computational approaches described in this book aim at formalizing the uncertainty of cues. They describe cue combination as the nervous system's attempt to minimize uncertainty in its estimates and to choose successful actions. Some computational approaches described in the chapters of this book are concerned with the application of such statistical ideas to real-world cue-combination problems, such as shape and depth perception. Other parts of the book ask how uncertainty may be represented in the nervous system and used for cue combination. The broadening scope of probabilistic approaches to cue combination is highlighted in the breadth of topics covered: the chapters summarize and discuss computational approaches and behavioral evidence aimed at understanding the combination of visual, auditory, proprioceptive, and haptic cues. Some chapters address the combination of cues within a single sensory modality while others address the combination across sensory modalities. Neural implementation, behavior, and theory are considered. The unifying aspect of this book is the focus on the uncertainty intrinsic to sensory cues and the underlying question of how the nervous system deals with this uncertainty.
William Cornish
- Published in print:
- 2010
- Published Online:
- May 2010
- ISBN:
- 9780199239757
- eISBN:
- 9780191705151
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199239757.003.0021
- Subject:
- Law, Legal History
This chapter on the roots of collective action in the 19th century begins with a discussion of the condition of labour. It then discusses the development of criminal offences relating to ...
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This chapter on the roots of collective action in the 19th century begins with a discussion of the condition of labour. It then discusses the development of criminal offences relating to protest-backed demands that terms of work be improved or at least maintained, especially when the workers' conduct was well enough controlled to avoid charges of offences against person or property. This is followed by a discussion of the Combination of Workmen Act 1825.Less
This chapter on the roots of collective action in the 19th century begins with a discussion of the condition of labour. It then discusses the development of criminal offences relating to protest-backed demands that terms of work be improved or at least maintained, especially when the workers' conduct was well enough controlled to avoid charges of offences against person or property. This is followed by a discussion of the Combination of Workmen Act 1825.
Simon J. Potter
- Published in print:
- 2003
- Published Online:
- January 2010
- ISBN:
- 9780199265121
- eISBN:
- 9780191718427
- Item type:
- book
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199265121.001.0001
- Subject:
- History, British and Irish Modern History
During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, Britain, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa were increasingly drawn together by an imperial press system. This is the first scholarly ...
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During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, Britain, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa were increasingly drawn together by an imperial press system. This is the first scholarly study of the development of that system. Revealed to contemporaries by the South African War, the basis on which the system would develop soon became the focus for debate. Commercial organizations, including newspaper combinations and news agencies such as Reuters, fought to protect their interests, while ‘constructive imperialists’ attempted to enlist the power of the state to strengthen the system. Debate culminated in fierce controversies over state censorship and propaganda during and after the First World War. Based on extensive archival research, this study addresses crucial themes, including the impact of empire on the press, Britain's imperial experience, and the idea of a ‘British world’. Challenging earlier nationalist accounts, the author draws out the ambiguous impact of the imperial press system on local, national, and imperial identities.Less
During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, Britain, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa were increasingly drawn together by an imperial press system. This is the first scholarly study of the development of that system. Revealed to contemporaries by the South African War, the basis on which the system would develop soon became the focus for debate. Commercial organizations, including newspaper combinations and news agencies such as Reuters, fought to protect their interests, while ‘constructive imperialists’ attempted to enlist the power of the state to strengthen the system. Debate culminated in fierce controversies over state censorship and propaganda during and after the First World War. Based on extensive archival research, this study addresses crucial themes, including the impact of empire on the press, Britain's imperial experience, and the idea of a ‘British world’. Challenging earlier nationalist accounts, the author draws out the ambiguous impact of the imperial press system on local, national, and imperial identities.
Michael S. Landy, Martin S. Banks, and David C. Knill
- Published in print:
- 2011
- Published Online:
- September 2012
- ISBN:
- 9780195387247
- eISBN:
- 9780199918379
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195387247.003.0001
- Subject:
- Psychology, Cognitive Neuroscience, Cognitive Psychology
This chapter provides a general introduction to the field of cue combination from the perspective of optimal cue integration. It works through a number of qualitatively different problems and ...
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This chapter provides a general introduction to the field of cue combination from the perspective of optimal cue integration. It works through a number of qualitatively different problems and illustrate how building ideal observers helps formulate the scientific questions that need to be answered in order to understand how the brain solves these problems. It begins with a simple example of integration leading to a linear model of cue integration. This is followed by a summary of a general approach to optimality: Bayesian estimation and decision theory. It then reviews situations in which realistic generative models of sensory data lead to nonlinear ideal-observer models. Subsequent sections review empirical studies of cue combination and issues they raise, as well as open questions in the field.Less
This chapter provides a general introduction to the field of cue combination from the perspective of optimal cue integration. It works through a number of qualitatively different problems and illustrate how building ideal observers helps formulate the scientific questions that need to be answered in order to understand how the brain solves these problems. It begins with a simple example of integration leading to a linear model of cue integration. This is followed by a summary of a general approach to optimality: Bayesian estimation and decision theory. It then reviews situations in which realistic generative models of sensory data lead to nonlinear ideal-observer models. Subsequent sections review empirical studies of cue combination and issues they raise, as well as open questions in the field.
Pedro Rosas and Felix A. Wichmann
- Published in print:
- 2011
- Published Online:
- September 2012
- ISBN:
- 9780195387247
- eISBN:
- 9780199918379
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195387247.003.0008
- Subject:
- Psychology, Cognitive Neuroscience, Cognitive Psychology
This chapter briefly introduces the robust-weak-fusion model, which offers an exceptionally clear and elegant framework within which to understand empirical studies on cue combination. Research on ...
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This chapter briefly introduces the robust-weak-fusion model, which offers an exceptionally clear and elegant framework within which to understand empirical studies on cue combination. Research on cue combination is an area in the cognitive neurosciences where quantitative models and predictions are the norm rather than the exception—and this is certainly a development that this book welcomes wholeheartedly. What they view critically, however, is the strong emphasis on so-called optimal cue combination. Optimal in the context of human cue combination typically refers to the minimum-variance unbiased estimator for multiple sources of information, corresponding to maximum-likelihood estimation when the probability distribution of the estimates based on each cue are Gaussian, independent, and the prior of the observer is uniform (noninformative). The central aim of this chapter is to spell out worries regarding both the term optimality as well as against the use of the minimum-variance unbiased estimator as the statistical tool to go from the reliability of a cue to its weight in robust weak fusion.Less
This chapter briefly introduces the robust-weak-fusion model, which offers an exceptionally clear and elegant framework within which to understand empirical studies on cue combination. Research on cue combination is an area in the cognitive neurosciences where quantitative models and predictions are the norm rather than the exception—and this is certainly a development that this book welcomes wholeheartedly. What they view critically, however, is the strong emphasis on so-called optimal cue combination. Optimal in the context of human cue combination typically refers to the minimum-variance unbiased estimator for multiple sources of information, corresponding to maximum-likelihood estimation when the probability distribution of the estimates based on each cue are Gaussian, independent, and the prior of the observer is uniform (noninformative). The central aim of this chapter is to spell out worries regarding both the term optimality as well as against the use of the minimum-variance unbiased estimator as the statistical tool to go from the reliability of a cue to its weight in robust weak fusion.
Christopher F. Karpowitz and Tali Mendelberg
- Published in print:
- 2014
- Published Online:
- October 2017
- ISBN:
- 9780691159751
- eISBN:
- 9781400852697
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Princeton University Press
- DOI:
- 10.23943/princeton/9780691159751.003.0006
- Subject:
- Sociology, Gender and Sexuality
This chapter asks whether critics are correct that women participate less than men during deliberation and thus have less perceived influence in it. Advocates and critics of deliberative democracy ...
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This chapter asks whether critics are correct that women participate less than men during deliberation and thus have less perceived influence in it. Advocates and critics of deliberative democracy posit equal meaningful participation as a necessary requirement of deliberation. Results show how far actual discussion deviates from that ideal standard, where women speak substantially less than men in most mixed-gender combinations. Further, speech is a crucial form of participation that meaningfully shapes perceptions of authority. As critics of deliberation contend, deliberation can produce inequalities of participation that affect deliberators' influence. Even if men and women enter deliberation with the same preferences and equal formal rights, the disproportionate exercise of these rights by men erodes the political and civic standing of women, a group not yet equal in society.Less
This chapter asks whether critics are correct that women participate less than men during deliberation and thus have less perceived influence in it. Advocates and critics of deliberative democracy posit equal meaningful participation as a necessary requirement of deliberation. Results show how far actual discussion deviates from that ideal standard, where women speak substantially less than men in most mixed-gender combinations. Further, speech is a crucial form of participation that meaningfully shapes perceptions of authority. As critics of deliberation contend, deliberation can produce inequalities of participation that affect deliberators' influence. Even if men and women enter deliberation with the same preferences and equal formal rights, the disproportionate exercise of these rights by men erodes the political and civic standing of women, a group not yet equal in society.
Wei Ji Ma, Jeff Beck, and Alexandre Pouget
- Published in print:
- 2011
- Published Online:
- September 2012
- ISBN:
- 9780195387247
- eISBN:
- 9780199918379
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195387247.003.0021
- Subject:
- Psychology, Cognitive Neuroscience, Cognitive Psychology
This chapter lays out a theoretical framework for how optimal cue integration can be implemented by neural populations. The main significance of this framework does not merely lie in understanding ...
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This chapter lays out a theoretical framework for how optimal cue integration can be implemented by neural populations. The main significance of this framework does not merely lie in understanding multisensory perception in a principled manner, but in the fact that it provides a blueprint for finding neural implementations of other forms of Bayes-optimal computation. Evidence for Bayesian optimality of human behavior has been found in many perceptual tasks, including decision making, visual search, oddity detection, and multiple-trajectory tracking. Probabilistic population coding provides a roadmap for identifying a neural implementation of each of these computations: First the Bayesian model at the behavioral level needs to be worked out, then it needs to be assumed that probability distributions in this model are encoded in neural populations with Poisson-like variability, and finally the neural operations that map onto the desired operations on probability distributions should be identified.Less
This chapter lays out a theoretical framework for how optimal cue integration can be implemented by neural populations. The main significance of this framework does not merely lie in understanding multisensory perception in a principled manner, but in the fact that it provides a blueprint for finding neural implementations of other forms of Bayes-optimal computation. Evidence for Bayesian optimality of human behavior has been found in many perceptual tasks, including decision making, visual search, oddity detection, and multiple-trajectory tracking. Probabilistic population coding provides a roadmap for identifying a neural implementation of each of these computations: First the Bayesian model at the behavioral level needs to be worked out, then it needs to be assumed that probability distributions in this model are encoded in neural populations with Poisson-like variability, and finally the neural operations that map onto the desired operations on probability distributions should be identified.
MARK CURTHOYS
- Published in print:
- 2004
- Published Online:
- January 2010
- ISBN:
- 9780199268894
- eISBN:
- 9780191708466
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199268894.003.0002
- Subject:
- History, British and Irish Modern History
After the repeal of the Combination Acts in the mid-1820s, the extent of the freedom to combine, and the wisdom of exercising that freedom, continued to be disputed in Britain. Robert Peel, the home ...
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After the repeal of the Combination Acts in the mid-1820s, the extent of the freedom to combine, and the wisdom of exercising that freedom, continued to be disputed in Britain. Robert Peel, the home secretary responsible for bringing in the measure of 1825, had intended that the scope for legal combination should be kept within very narrow limits. Peel's whig successor, Lord Melbourne, appeared to take a slightly more relaxed view of what the new statute meant. Artisan radicals, on the other hand, claimed the liberty to combine on virtually unrestricted terms, provided only that it was peacefully exercised. This chapter examines the criminal liabilities of strikers after the ban on combinations was lifted. The Wolverhampton trials, which involved the National Association of Union Trades and opened the way to a new phase of judicial creativity towards trade unions and strikes, are analyzed.Less
After the repeal of the Combination Acts in the mid-1820s, the extent of the freedom to combine, and the wisdom of exercising that freedom, continued to be disputed in Britain. Robert Peel, the home secretary responsible for bringing in the measure of 1825, had intended that the scope for legal combination should be kept within very narrow limits. Peel's whig successor, Lord Melbourne, appeared to take a slightly more relaxed view of what the new statute meant. Artisan radicals, on the other hand, claimed the liberty to combine on virtually unrestricted terms, provided only that it was peacefully exercised. This chapter examines the criminal liabilities of strikers after the ban on combinations was lifted. The Wolverhampton trials, which involved the National Association of Union Trades and opened the way to a new phase of judicial creativity towards trade unions and strikes, are analyzed.
MARK CURTHOYS
- Published in print:
- 2004
- Published Online:
- January 2010
- ISBN:
- 9780199268894
- eISBN:
- 9780191708466
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199268894.003.0003
- Subject:
- History, British and Irish Modern History
Legitimate combinations in Britain were conceived of in 1825 as occasional meetings of workmen to decide the level of wages for which they were willing to sell their labour. During the 1850s official ...
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Legitimate combinations in Britain were conceived of in 1825 as occasional meetings of workmen to decide the level of wages for which they were willing to sell their labour. During the 1850s official opinion, based on a theory of an unregulated labour market, more readily acknowledged and accepted — though it regretted — the fact of strikes, than it did trade unionism. Whether the Liberal-Tory ministers intended it or not, trade unions after 1825 enjoyed in practice a form of legal toleration. This chapter considers the legal status of trade unions in Britain as institutions during the period 1825-1866, along with various interpretations of unionism and the position of trade unions with respect to legalisation.Less
Legitimate combinations in Britain were conceived of in 1825 as occasional meetings of workmen to decide the level of wages for which they were willing to sell their labour. During the 1850s official opinion, based on a theory of an unregulated labour market, more readily acknowledged and accepted — though it regretted — the fact of strikes, than it did trade unionism. Whether the Liberal-Tory ministers intended it or not, trade unions after 1825 enjoyed in practice a form of legal toleration. This chapter considers the legal status of trade unions in Britain as institutions during the period 1825-1866, along with various interpretations of unionism and the position of trade unions with respect to legalisation.
MARK CURTHOYS
- Published in print:
- 2004
- Published Online:
- January 2010
- ISBN:
- 9780199268894
- eISBN:
- 9780191708466
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199268894.003.0011
- Subject:
- History, British and Irish Modern History
For nearly half a century after the repeal of the Combination Acts, the liberty to combine in Britain continued to be restricted, at least in theory. Governments and the courts admitted the impolicy ...
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For nearly half a century after the repeal of the Combination Acts, the liberty to combine in Britain continued to be restricted, at least in theory. Governments and the courts admitted the impolicy of an outright ban on combination. However, they were unwilling to recognize trade unions or to remove the penalties for strikes, or threats of strikes, in all instances. Empirical evidence indicated that the position which favoured legal restriction conceptualized labour market relations in ways that bore little relation to the actual practice of collective bargaining and its outcomes. The legislation of the 1870s brought about the unrestricted legalisation of unions and the decriminalization of labour law, which for practical purposes protected the freedom to strike. The attack against the persistence of ‘class’ legislation was directed against labour and sought to establish the freedom to combine, in its broadest extent, as one of the foundations of the liberal state in Britain.Less
For nearly half a century after the repeal of the Combination Acts, the liberty to combine in Britain continued to be restricted, at least in theory. Governments and the courts admitted the impolicy of an outright ban on combination. However, they were unwilling to recognize trade unions or to remove the penalties for strikes, or threats of strikes, in all instances. Empirical evidence indicated that the position which favoured legal restriction conceptualized labour market relations in ways that bore little relation to the actual practice of collective bargaining and its outcomes. The legislation of the 1870s brought about the unrestricted legalisation of unions and the decriminalization of labour law, which for practical purposes protected the freedom to strike. The attack against the persistence of ‘class’ legislation was directed against labour and sought to establish the freedom to combine, in its broadest extent, as one of the foundations of the liberal state in Britain.
Keith Hossack
- Published in print:
- 2007
- Published Online:
- January 2008
- ISBN:
- 9780199206728
- eISBN:
- 9780191709777
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199206728.003.0002
- Subject:
- Philosophy, Metaphysics/Epistemology
This chapter outlines a theory of facts, according to which facts are combinations of particulars and universals. The discussion proceeds as follows. Section 1 discusses the relation between the ...
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This chapter outlines a theory of facts, according to which facts are combinations of particulars and universals. The discussion proceeds as follows. Section 1 discusses the relation between the theory of facts and Realism, the traditional metaphysical doctrine of universals. Section 2 places at the centre of the theory of facts and universals the relation of combination, a multigrade relation taking a variable number of terms. Section 3 discusses the ‘vector logic’ of multigrade relations. Section 4 introduces ‘the problem of the unity of the proposition’, i.e., the problem of why it is impossible to judge ‘nonsense’. This turns out to be the same as the problem of the distinction between particulars and universals. Section 5 rejects solutions that invoke extra entities such as propositions or states of affairs. Section 6 offers a solution via the theory of negative facts. Section 7 extends the theory of negative facts to other complex facts, namely conjunctive and general facts. Section 8 further extends the theory of complex facts to allow it to cope with multiple generality, without the need to resort either to ‘logical forms’ or to ‘variables’. Section 9 suggests that an adequate semantic theory for the Predicate Calculus can be developed within the theory of facts.Less
This chapter outlines a theory of facts, according to which facts are combinations of particulars and universals. The discussion proceeds as follows. Section 1 discusses the relation between the theory of facts and Realism, the traditional metaphysical doctrine of universals. Section 2 places at the centre of the theory of facts and universals the relation of combination, a multigrade relation taking a variable number of terms. Section 3 discusses the ‘vector logic’ of multigrade relations. Section 4 introduces ‘the problem of the unity of the proposition’, i.e., the problem of why it is impossible to judge ‘nonsense’. This turns out to be the same as the problem of the distinction between particulars and universals. Section 5 rejects solutions that invoke extra entities such as propositions or states of affairs. Section 6 offers a solution via the theory of negative facts. Section 7 extends the theory of negative facts to other complex facts, namely conjunctive and general facts. Section 8 further extends the theory of complex facts to allow it to cope with multiple generality, without the need to resort either to ‘logical forms’ or to ‘variables’. Section 9 suggests that an adequate semantic theory for the Predicate Calculus can be developed within the theory of facts.
Brian Leftow
- Published in print:
- 2012
- Published Online:
- January 2013
- ISBN:
- 9780199263356
- eISBN:
- 9780191741777
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199263356.003.0013
- Subject:
- Philosophy, Philosophy of Religion, Metaphysics/Epistemology
Because it is useful to speak as if there were divine concepts, this chapter discusses God’s mental content in concept language. It provides an account of concepts simple in content. It then takes up ...
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Because it is useful to speak as if there were divine concepts, this chapter discusses God’s mental content in concept language. It provides an account of concepts simple in content. It then takes up ways concepts combine. It suggests that God invents His creature-concepts’ modes of combination, rather than finding them innate in Himself. It also argues that God actually makes all possible combinations of His concepts. This helps secure actualism — the metaphysical thesis that all that is is actual — for the book’s overall theory.Less
Because it is useful to speak as if there were divine concepts, this chapter discusses God’s mental content in concept language. It provides an account of concepts simple in content. It then takes up ways concepts combine. It suggests that God invents His creature-concepts’ modes of combination, rather than finding them innate in Himself. It also argues that God actually makes all possible combinations of His concepts. This helps secure actualism — the metaphysical thesis that all that is is actual — for the book’s overall theory.
Hazel Carty
- Published in print:
- 2010
- Published Online:
- January 2011
- ISBN:
- 9780199546749
- eISBN:
- 9780191594946
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199546749.003.0006
- Subject:
- Law, Intellectual Property, IT, and Media Law
This chapter explores the history and ingredients of the two types of conspiracy liability: lawful means conspiracy and unlawful means conspiracy. Throughout the 20th century, the relationship of the ...
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This chapter explores the history and ingredients of the two types of conspiracy liability: lawful means conspiracy and unlawful means conspiracy. Throughout the 20th century, the relationship of the two types of conspiracy liability to the other economic torts and to each other was unclear. The decision in Total Network both rejects the limited view that unlawful means conspiracy is but a form of joint tortfeasance, and challenges the orthodox view that the conspiracy torts are largely peripheral to the main economic torts. Two questions are debated within the chapter: whether conspiracy liability is still contained in two separate torts or is part of a spectrum of liability for harmful combinations, and whether the overall discussion in Total Network reveals that conspiracy liability will help to shape the economic torts in the 21st century (in particular in relation to direct liability).Less
This chapter explores the history and ingredients of the two types of conspiracy liability: lawful means conspiracy and unlawful means conspiracy. Throughout the 20th century, the relationship of the two types of conspiracy liability to the other economic torts and to each other was unclear. The decision in Total Network both rejects the limited view that unlawful means conspiracy is but a form of joint tortfeasance, and challenges the orthodox view that the conspiracy torts are largely peripheral to the main economic torts. Two questions are debated within the chapter: whether conspiracy liability is still contained in two separate torts or is part of a spectrum of liability for harmful combinations, and whether the overall discussion in Total Network reveals that conspiracy liability will help to shape the economic torts in the 21st century (in particular in relation to direct liability).
