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In previous times, the United States has been considered as a state that gives utmost priority to higher education. As seen in the history of education in the United States, governmental efforts to expand opportunities for college attendance is key to providing channels for upward mobility, thus, lessening the scope and impact of economic inequality. However, recent studies have shown that this priority of promoting higher education has decreased over time. This chapter aims to explain why the United States has experienced such a departure. It emphasizes how policies created at earlier junctures foster new political dynamics. It also explains how higher education policies promoted development regarding key interest groups such as lenders. However, these same policies failed to mobilize ordinary citizens, this includes students, and families who hoped to send their children to college.

Chapter forty-one deals with the years immediately following the death of so many of Hodge’s friends and family. He underwent intense bouts of grief and his physical health was not strong. He was also named to Princeton College’s Board of Trustees in 1850. He served on the Board until his death in 1878. While a Trustee, Hodge worked closely with Presidents Carnahan, Maclean and McCosh to keep religious instruction an important part of the school’s curriculum. He also stressed a broad-based liberal arts approach to the College’s curricular agenda.

Chapter Eight explores Charles Hodge’s conversion to Christianity during the revival at Princeton College in the winter of 1815. Hodge had been religious his entire life, but decided to take a step forward in his commitment to Christ during this revival. He then threw himself into various religious activities at the College as both his grades and his health suffered.

This chapter explores the processes and discourses of enrollment expansion, as well as the mechanisms colleges and universities have used to help improve the prospects of students who are most at risk of noncompletion. The sociologist James E. Rosenbaum (1998) coined the term “college for all” to describe the aspirations of policymakers and college and university administrators to extend college opportunities as widely as possible. Access and completion are the drivers of the educational revolution that has made college seem less like a choice than a necessity, but the revolution could not have occurred unless it had preserved and indeed added ways for ambitious students to acquire status at college and beyond graduation.

The introduction of systematic religious instruction at Basel’s most important Latin school, the reformation of its stipendiary system, and the creation of colleges intended especially for future pastors were foundational aspects of the city’s new system of pastoral training. Over time, the religious curriculum became more rigorous and the city’s catechism was interpreted to accord more fully with Reformed Orthodoxy. Stricter supervision of stipendiates and an increase in the number of stipends made it possible for more students to study for a longer time before entering the ministry. As students, they were expected to live in one of the university’s two colleges, where they received additional theological education and were subject to closer supervision.

This chapter examines religious discourse in mid-century America, which was characterized by unprecedented ecumenism and surprisingly widespread praise for integration. Beginning in the mid-1740s, religious writers stressed the common principles that Protestants of all denominations shared. During the same period, colonial institutions of many types declared themselves “open to all parties” — by which they usually meant all religious parties. Extended accounts of the Free Mason movement, the legislative assemblies of New York and Philadelphia, and the fight for control of King’s College (Columbia University), demonstrate a growing consciousness of religious diversity and the increasing priority accorded to interdenominational cooperation.

This chapter describes the process of recruitment, selection, and examination of ordination candidates by bishops and their advisers. It examines the social and geographical backgrounds from which the clergy were drawn. It describes the education of clergy at grammar and free schools and at the universities. It examines the specific training for ordination that was provided for them and how provision was made for poor candidates — mostly from geographically remote areas — unable to attend one of the universities, and new developments in training during the 1830s. The means by which prospective clergy secured their first posts is discussed, and the means provided to encourage them to continue their theological studies.

In this afterword, the author discusses the events surrounding the 2000 U.S. Presidential election, in which George W. Bush became President based on a Supreme Court ruling that gave him the majority in the electoral college, defeating Vice President Al Gore, who had won the popular vote. The widely held ideal of a popular democracy is contrasted with the reality of the Twelfth Amendment system of electoral votes, and the author asserts that such contrasts point to the ongoing conflict between our “two constitutions” and our own sense of nationhood. Issues of voter disenfranchisement raised in the election are also examined.

This chapter provides the basic biographical material necessary to understand the course of Wyclif’s life. The first section traces Wyclif’s career at Oxford University, specifically at Merton and Balliol Colleges. Wyclif was a prolific writer, and while establishing a precise chronology for his works as they have come down to us is difficult, given his apparently extensive re-editing of his works, the chapter describes the organization of his two major philosophical collections, the Summa de Ente and the Summa Theologie. The second section surveys Wyclif’s career in the service of the Duke of Lancaster, his subsequent dismissal from Oxford University, and his ongoing disputes with Bishop William Courtenay of London. During his final years in exile in Lutterworth, Leicestershire, Wyclif produced a significant body of writing, ranging from exegesis to polemics, remaining active in his criticisms of the ecclesiastical status quo.

This chapter examines the influence of the colonial educational curriculum in the British West Indies on the invention of a distinctive mode of Caribbean Classics. The first half of the chapter describes the culture of elite education in the British West Indies, centred on the Cambridge Certificate examinations and the competitive grail of the island scholarships. The second half of the chapter argues that accounts of Classics in the colonial curriculum broadly correspond to three tropes: ‘Contesting the Curriculum’, ‘Afro‐Romans and Imperial Redistribution’, and ‘Finding one's Own Way in Classics’. Each trope is illustrated with reference to a range of anglophone Caribbean works, including V. S. Naipaul's Miguel Street (1959), C. L. R. James's Beyond a Boundary (1963), Eric Williams's autobiography Inward Hunger (1969), Austin Clarke's Growing up Stupid under the Union Jack (1980), and selected poems by Howard Fergus and E. A. Markham.

This chapter covers a period when several British management institutions were initiated and Urwick played a key role in most of them. Urwick's Chairmanship of the Education Committee of the Institute of Industrial Administration (IIA) contributed to his appointment as Chairman of the Committee on Education for Management in 1945, creating a syllabus which could be jointly used by different management institutions. Urwick was also deeply involved in the creation of the British Institute of Management (BIM) in 1947. However, he was unhappy with its development and had an on—off relationship with it. He had long proposed a ‘Staff College for Industry’ and was involved in its gestation, although withdrawing from the founding committee before its implementation as Henley Management College. He also lobbied for a management education team to visit America in 1951 and became its leader. All these were important developments without quite becoming central to the future of British management.

Examines the question of whether electoral losers will try to change the rules of the game or will stop participating in politics altogether. Expectations of future loss are likely to have an important impact when citizens are asked to consider replacing the current status quo institutions with another set. Examining proposed and enacted institutional reforms in a variety of areas and countries, we find that losers by and large are more likely to support changes in institutional practices. The findings help to demonstrate that losing is an important part of the motor that drives institutional change. While losing does not presage a disaster or an abrupt end to democratic practices, it does seem to be one of the first steps in the direction of change and reform. One of the difficulties facing the design of democratic institutions is to have institutions that make losers, but not permanent losers, and to allow current losers some reasonable chance of winning in future periods.

Chapter 5 presents a comprehensive and innovative analysis of extracurricular sports for undergraduate women between the 1920s and 1950s. Why did some colleges and universities approve high-level female competition, while others opposed it? Why did like-minded physical educators at similar institutions reach different conclusions about women’s athletics? The chapter argues that both national and local factors played a role. As higher education and student populations changed, each institution’s mission and identity, demographic makeup, donor base, governance structure, and campus culture produced distinctive practices of “difference” along axes of gender, race, and class; these frameworks either facilitated or disallowed women’s athletics. The analysis includes case studies of diverse schools, including Agnes Scott, Milwaukee-Downer, Smith, Bryn Mawr, Stanford, Hampton, Tuskegee, and Spelman.