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Crystal plasticity is overwhelmingly a consequence of the self similar translations of dislocations, which is viewed as a limiting form of more general shear transformations that also include twinning and martensitic transformations. Unlike elastic deformation, which can be homogeneous down to the atomic scale, plastic deformation involving dislocation translations or other shear transformations are locally discrete and inhomogeneous. Plasticity can be viewed as homogeneous only when the discrete processes are homogenized over a representative volume element (RVE), large enough to represent quasi-smooth behavior. Thus, for the purpose of viewing plasticity as a continuum field theory, its applicability is limited to volume elements no smaller than the RVE over which processes have been homogenized. In this chapter, the essential kinematics of inelastic deformation is introduced broadly. This is followed by the development of dislocation line properties that are associated with plastic strain production and the expenditure of plastic work in crystal plasticity, including concepts of dislocation line tension, dislocation mass, forms of interaction of dislocations with applied stresses, with each other, with free surfaces, and inhomogeneities. The principles of thermally activated deformation processes are introduced and then applied to dislocation glide and overcoming of local obstacles by thermal assistance. The detailed developments of dislocation properties emphasize face centered cubic crystals, including a full complement of partial dislocation and their dislocation.

Weasels are feisty little critters that hunt widely-dispersed and well-hidden prey with impressive predatory efficiency, willowy grace, and electric energy. Most predators tackling prey larger than themselves hunt in groups, but the larger weasels are astonishingly bold, often acting alone to attack a bird or rabbit twice their own size. Smaller weasels hunt by searching every hole, sniffing under fallen logs, following scent trails, and responding to any small sounds that might betray a hidden rodent. They climb trees and swim streams confidently; they burrow under snow and leaves, and patrol underground runways and nests, day and night. They make up in agility what they lack in stature by wrapping their long bodies around a struggling victim to hold it. Their galloping metabolism makes weasels always hungry, and the energy equations of weasel hunting are marginal at most times, but critical when rodent populations decline.

This chapter concerns mountain skis that are securely attached to the foot. Such skis allow various methods of hill climbing because they are easier to control than running skis that have no heel straps. One has to know how to climb a hill, ski back down while making turns, and in general control one's skis. Only then can one move about in variable terrain and perform jumps with confidence. The chapter shows that one can surmount a small slope without special exertion simply by lifting the front part of the skis and driving them back into the snow more forcefully, thereby preventing a slide backward.

This chapter discusses the interface between syntax and argument structure. It considers a case study of a particular kind of complex predicate, that is, Romance auxiliaries. It focuses on Romanian auxiliaries, whose properties are compared with those of Italian, French, and Portuguese auxiliaries on one hand, and with those of Bulgarian and Macedonian auxiliaries on the other. The chapter proposes that an appropriate labor division between syntactic structure and argument structure can manage the idiosyncratic behavior of Romance tense auxiliaries, which has the status of simple clitics. It considers the role of argument structure in dealing with clitic climbing and argues whether syntax exists as an autonomous module of the grammar or whether it acts merely as an interface between form and meaning.

After clarifying basic terms and concepts in the area of semantic change in section 1, extant hypotheses on semantic change in modality are discussed in section 2. Section 3 presents a personal view of semantic change in modality, which is defined by the following overall tendencies: first, semantic change as category climbing, that is, change from lower to higher categories in semantic and syntactic hierarchical clause structures, and second, increase in speech‐act‐orientation, including speaker‐orientation (subjectivity), hearer‐orientation (intersubjectivity), and discourse‐orientation.

This chapter is concerned with the restrictions on clitic climbing with Italian sembrare. For some speakers sembrare may behave either as a lexical verb and resist clitic climbing, or as a restructuring verb, allowing clitic climbing (Cinque 1999, 2002, 2004). However, even for the latter speakers, clitic climbing is excluded with certain modal or aspectual auxiliaries, in conditional clauses and in the complements of factive verbs. This chapter provides evidence that ‘restructuring’ sembrare is inserted in the head encoding evidential mood (Cinque 2004). Speaker-related modal markers must be licensed by Force, in the left periphery. The left periphery of conditional clauses and of the complements of factive predicates lacks Force; as a result, speaker-oriented modal markers, among which evidential markers, are excluded, hence evidential sembrare cannot be licensed. The absence of Force in conditional clauses will be shown to follow from the movement analysis of such clauses.

This chapter examines the potential of alternative sports for the creation of new and alternative masculinities in Japan. It focuses on the sport of free-climbing, which despite its inherent androgynous characteristics, as with other alternative sports, is highly gendered in conventional way. While heteronormative ideas of a natural or naturalized gender order persist, alternative sports and similar countercultures provide opportunities for popularizing new and alternative masculinities. In this chapter, the research data are based on an extensive participant observation between two different groups of free climbers from western Japan in the years 1995 and 1996. The chapter starts with an overview of free-climbing in Japan. The proceeding sections explore the mechanisms of inclusion and exclusion, the importance of the body, and various markers of status differentiation and status inversion within the subculture. The chapter concludes by discussing the appropriateness of androgyny as a concept in sports and by providing comments on the variability and plurality of masculine identities among Japanese free climbers.

By looking at the Union Internationale des Associations d’Alpinisme (UIAA, or International Mountaineering and Climbing Federation), an international organization created in 1932 “to promote mountaineering and climbing worldwide,” this chapter explores the “moral economy” of internationalism, or the dynamics through which internationalist groups used feelings to attribute moral values to specific beliefs and behaviors. It demonstrates that the UIAA used emotions to promote both its image and its mission. It presented alpinism as a means to engender “friendship” among nations, mimicking the League of Nations’ rhetoric and activities in this period. It also employed emotions as a tool to manage its relationships and as an essential ingredient to stage its events (e.g. international congresses and exhibitions). As such, it inaugurated a set of ideas and practices which would become normative in the subsequent decades.

A disproportionately large percentage of the most prominent evolutionary naturalists, and almost every member of the X-Club, traveled and climbed in the Swiss Alps. John Tyndall and Leslie Stephen, in particular, were simultaneously the most vocal of the evolutionary naturalists and the two most accomplished alpinists of their age. The height of their climbing came in the early 1860s, the same years in which they formulated their agnosticism. This paper will examine their journals and letters to uncover the role that mountaineering played as they formulated and defended a naturalistic framework. The questions the mountains forced them to ask, whether through beauty or desolation, order or chaos (what William Clifford termed “cosmic emotion”) helped influence their common project of formulating an ethic based on nature rather than God.

Lethem's third novel is a campus comedy, but is yet again inflected with science fiction. The chapter argues that the campus comedy is an ideal genre for exploring Lethem's concerns because it has long been concerned with closed worlds, disciplinarity and isolation. At the heart of As She Climbed Across the Table is “Lack,” a hole in the fabric of the universe formed after a failed physics experiment. The hole is a surreal concrete metaphor for a recurring theme in Lethem's work – lack or traumatic loss. The various characters in the novel, it is argued, frantically try to compensate for their lack of understanding of “Lack” by attempting to claim it for their disciplines, and by using language to explain and therefore own it. In the end, the chapter states, this novel is chiefly concerned with the inescapability and inefficacy of language as a compensation for loss.

Chapter 3 investigates the wide-ranging significance of colonial Hawaii for George Herbert Mead. He became emotionally invested in Hawaii from his college days, as his closest personal relationships and most affecting personal losses were directly tied to those islands. By the time he first visited in 1897, Mead had been exposed to ardent talk and vivid images of the people and places, especially in relation to revolution and annexation. Over his thirteen long sojourns there, Mead was introduced firsthand to its pressing social issues by leading citizens, and became a participant in its public debates. He served on an official behalf for the Territory of Hawaii and explored its landscapes, all the while reflecting on the broader significance of its problems and placing them in dialogue with analogous issues elsewhere. In Hawaii, Mead occupied a peculiar role, as someone fundamentally dependent on personal guides, especially his wife Helen Castle Mead, for his participation in and understanding of the social landscape. This focus on Hawaii helps specify Mead's reform work and theorizing about democratic societies, and it provides an opportunity to reformulate the nature of “context” as an analytical concept

Müller reacted to Darwin in three phases. First, between 1861 and 1863 he restructured his own research after reading Darwin’s Origin. Next, in 1865, he initiated correspondence with Darwin in direct engagement of Darwin’s projects. Third, after returning to Blumenau in 1867, he developed research on new groups of organisms. Three topics pursued by Müller between 1865 and 1867 were stimulated directly by Darwin: climbing plants (over 50 genera near Desterro with disparate ways of twining, some new to Darwin); heterostyly; and complex orchid adaptations affecting fertilization involving coadaptations with insect pollinators. Much of Müller’s research on orchids is now lost; it was set aside for an abandoned book project. His independent research often engaged Darwinian topics, including species formation, adaptations of plants to prevent self-fertilization, and the role of natural selection in shaping plant–insect coadaptations. The chapter also covers the changing fortunes of the Blumenau colony and August and Fritz Müller’s efforts to devise and teach improved agricultural methods.

This chapter discusses the ecology, diversity, and climbing ability of rattan. It begins with an overview of the biodiversity of tropical forests as well as rattan genera, number of species, and their distribution. It then considers the range of ecological conditions under which rattans grow and the importance of water, especially soil moisture, in the diversity, abundance, growth, and development of rattans. It also examines the relationship between rattans and ants, along with the evolution of rattan's climbing organs. Finally, it describes the role of rattan in the formation of canopy gaps and in subsequent plant succession and species composition.

Understanding the neuronal structure of the cerebellum is essential to understanding its function. Purkinje cells are the only output neuron of the cerebellar cortex, and they receive two very contrasting inputs: a single climbing fibre and thousands of parallel fibres. The climbing fibre provides the signal to drive learning at the synapses between parallel fibres and the Purkinje cell. The parallel fibres come from granule cells that relay extrinsic input to the cerebellum; it is granule cells that make up the vast majority of cerebellar neurons. The Purkinje cell and its inputs make up the adaptive filter motif. A simplified version of the cerebellum is found in the cerebellum-like structures in the hindbrain of basal vertebrates.

This work analyzes the syntactic properties of three constructions in Peruvian Spanish: existential sentences, double possession, and doubled clitic climbing. It considers the interaction between feature bundling and the operation Agree, providing evidence in favor of a microparametric approach to language and dialectal variation. It explains the apparent agreement between the existential verb and its accusative object by postulating a T with a valued [person] feature and a Small v with only [number] but not [person], and also for the doubling of the possessor if Small n has a [genitive] feature transferred from the contact language, which incorporates into the D head, inflecting it as a possessive determiner. In addition, it accounts for the doubled clitic climbing constructions by claiming that the clitic in these cases has a referentiality feature, which gives it an affixal nature. Therefore it blocks the c-command relation with its lower copy, forcing it to be pronounced.

Salentino dialects are reported to display a Greek‐style dual complementizer system, with propositional and irrealis complements introduced by the complementizers ca and cu, respectively, the latter optionally undergoing C‐drop. Following an examination of the differential distribution of cu‐drop in northern and central‐southern dialects, it is argued that the latter, in which cu‐drop emerged as the output of an optional rule of PF‐deletion, must represent a more conservative variety and, ultimately, the stage which underlies the subsequent development seen in the dialects to the north of the region. In these latter dialects, the original PF‐deletion rule was reanalysed as a case of syntactic deletion, with concomitant pruning of the CP layer and all that entails (clitic climbing, obligatory subject coreference, and loss of the null irrealis complementizer). The most important consequence of this reanalysis is shown to lie in the novel refunctionalization of the original C‐determined consonantal lengthening on the embedded verb, which has been exapted as an independent reflex of irrealis subjunctive marking on the embedded T head.