Andrew Biewener and Sheila Patek
- Published in print:
- 2018
- Published Online:
- May 2018
- ISBN:
- 9780198743156
- eISBN:
- 9780191803031
- Item type:
- book
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/oso/9780198743156.001.0001
- Subject:
- Biology, Animal Biology, Ecology
This book provides a synthesis of the physical, physiological, evolutionary, and biomechanical principles that underlie animal locomotion. An understanding and full appreciation of animal locomotion ...
More
This book provides a synthesis of the physical, physiological, evolutionary, and biomechanical principles that underlie animal locomotion. An understanding and full appreciation of animal locomotion requires the integration of these principles. Toward this end, we provide the necessary introductory foundation that will allow a more in-depth understanding of the physical biology and physiology of animal movement. In so doing, we hope that this book will illuminate the fundamentals and breadth of these systems, while inspiring our readers to look more deeply into the scientific literature and investigate new features of animal movement. Several themes run through this book. The first is that by comparing the modes and mechanisms by which animals have evolved the capacity for movement, we can understand the common principles that underlie each mode of locomotion. A second is that size matters. One of the most amazing aspects of biology is the enormous spatial and temporal scale over which organisms and biological processes operate. Within each mode of locomotion, animals have evolved designs and mechanisms that effectively contend with the physical properties and forces imposed on them by their environment. Understanding the constraints of scale that underlie locomotor mechanisms is essential to appreciating how these mechanisms have evolved and how they operate. A third theme is the importance of taking an integrative and comparative evolutionary approach in the study of biology. Organisms share much in common. Much of their molecular and cellular machinery is the same. They also must navigate similar physical properties of their environment. Consequently, an integrative approach to organismal function that spans multiple levels of biological organization provides a strong understanding of animal locomotion. By comparing across species, common principles of design emerge. Such comparisons also highlight how certain organisms may differ and point to strategies that have evolved for movement in diverse environments. Finally, because convergence upon common designs and the generation of new designs result from historical processes governed by natural selection, it is also important that we ask how and why these systems have evolved.Less
This book provides a synthesis of the physical, physiological, evolutionary, and biomechanical principles that underlie animal locomotion. An understanding and full appreciation of animal locomotion requires the integration of these principles. Toward this end, we provide the necessary introductory foundation that will allow a more in-depth understanding of the physical biology and physiology of animal movement. In so doing, we hope that this book will illuminate the fundamentals and breadth of these systems, while inspiring our readers to look more deeply into the scientific literature and investigate new features of animal movement. Several themes run through this book. The first is that by comparing the modes and mechanisms by which animals have evolved the capacity for movement, we can understand the common principles that underlie each mode of locomotion. A second is that size matters. One of the most amazing aspects of biology is the enormous spatial and temporal scale over which organisms and biological processes operate. Within each mode of locomotion, animals have evolved designs and mechanisms that effectively contend with the physical properties and forces imposed on them by their environment. Understanding the constraints of scale that underlie locomotor mechanisms is essential to appreciating how these mechanisms have evolved and how they operate. A third theme is the importance of taking an integrative and comparative evolutionary approach in the study of biology. Organisms share much in common. Much of their molecular and cellular machinery is the same. They also must navigate similar physical properties of their environment. Consequently, an integrative approach to organismal function that spans multiple levels of biological organization provides a strong understanding of animal locomotion. By comparing across species, common principles of design emerge. Such comparisons also highlight how certain organisms may differ and point to strategies that have evolved for movement in diverse environments. Finally, because convergence upon common designs and the generation of new designs result from historical processes governed by natural selection, it is also important that we ask how and why these systems have evolved.
A. S. Argon
- Published in print:
- 2007
- Published Online:
- September 2007
- ISBN:
- 9780198516002
- eISBN:
- 9780191705717
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198516002.003.0002
- Subject:
- Physics, Crystallography
Crystal plasticity is overwhelmingly a consequence of the self similar translations of dislocations, which is viewed as a limiting form of more general shear transformations that also include ...
More
Crystal plasticity is overwhelmingly a consequence of the self similar translations of dislocations, which is viewed as a limiting form of more general shear transformations that also include twinning and martensitic transformations. Unlike elastic deformation, which can be homogeneous down to the atomic scale, plastic deformation involving dislocation translations or other shear transformations are locally discrete and inhomogeneous. Plasticity can be viewed as homogeneous only when the discrete processes are homogenized over a representative volume element (RVE), large enough to represent quasi-smooth behavior. Thus, for the purpose of viewing plasticity as a continuum field theory, its applicability is limited to volume elements no smaller than the RVE over which processes have been homogenized. In this chapter, the essential kinematics of inelastic deformation is introduced broadly. This is followed by the development of dislocation line properties that are associated with plastic strain production and the expenditure of plastic work in crystal plasticity, including concepts of dislocation line tension, dislocation mass, forms of interaction of dislocations with applied stresses, with each other, with free surfaces, and inhomogeneities. The principles of thermally activated deformation processes are introduced and then applied to dislocation glide and overcoming of local obstacles by thermal assistance. The detailed developments of dislocation properties emphasize face centered cubic crystals, including a full complement of partial dislocation and their dislocation.Less
Crystal plasticity is overwhelmingly a consequence of the self similar translations of dislocations, which is viewed as a limiting form of more general shear transformations that also include twinning and martensitic transformations. Unlike elastic deformation, which can be homogeneous down to the atomic scale, plastic deformation involving dislocation translations or other shear transformations are locally discrete and inhomogeneous. Plasticity can be viewed as homogeneous only when the discrete processes are homogenized over a representative volume element (RVE), large enough to represent quasi-smooth behavior. Thus, for the purpose of viewing plasticity as a continuum field theory, its applicability is limited to volume elements no smaller than the RVE over which processes have been homogenized. In this chapter, the essential kinematics of inelastic deformation is introduced broadly. This is followed by the development of dislocation line properties that are associated with plastic strain production and the expenditure of plastic work in crystal plasticity, including concepts of dislocation line tension, dislocation mass, forms of interaction of dislocations with applied stresses, with each other, with free surfaces, and inhomogeneities. The principles of thermally activated deformation processes are introduced and then applied to dislocation glide and overcoming of local obstacles by thermal assistance. The detailed developments of dislocation properties emphasize face centered cubic crystals, including a full complement of partial dislocation and their dislocation.
Carolyn M. King and Roger A. Powell
- Published in print:
- 2007
- Published Online:
- April 2010
- ISBN:
- 9780195322712
- eISBN:
- 9780199894239
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195322712.003.0006
- Subject:
- Biology, Animal Biology
Weasels are feisty little critters that hunt widely-dispersed and well-hidden prey with impressive predatory efficiency, willowy grace, and electric energy. Most predators tackling prey larger than ...
More
Weasels are feisty little critters that hunt widely-dispersed and well-hidden prey with impressive predatory efficiency, willowy grace, and electric energy. Most predators tackling prey larger than themselves hunt in groups, but the larger weasels are astonishingly bold, often acting alone to attack a bird or rabbit twice their own size. Smaller weasels hunt by searching every hole, sniffing under fallen logs, following scent trails, and responding to any small sounds that might betray a hidden rodent. They climb trees and swim streams confidently; they burrow under snow and leaves, and patrol underground runways and nests, day and night. They make up in agility what they lack in stature by wrapping their long bodies around a struggling victim to hold it. Their galloping metabolism makes weasels always hungry, and the energy equations of weasel hunting are marginal at most times, but critical when rodent populations decline.Less
Weasels are feisty little critters that hunt widely-dispersed and well-hidden prey with impressive predatory efficiency, willowy grace, and electric energy. Most predators tackling prey larger than themselves hunt in groups, but the larger weasels are astonishingly bold, often acting alone to attack a bird or rabbit twice their own size. Smaller weasels hunt by searching every hole, sniffing under fallen logs, following scent trails, and responding to any small sounds that might betray a hidden rodent. They climb trees and swim streams confidently; they burrow under snow and leaves, and patrol underground runways and nests, day and night. They make up in agility what they lack in stature by wrapping their long bodies around a struggling victim to hold it. Their galloping metabolism makes weasels always hungry, and the energy equations of weasel hunting are marginal at most times, but critical when rodent populations decline.
Paola Monachesi
- Published in print:
- 2005
- Published Online:
- January 2010
- ISBN:
- 9780199274758
- eISBN:
- 9780191705908
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199274758.003.0004
- Subject:
- Linguistics, Syntax and Morphology
This chapter discusses the interface between syntax and argument structure. It considers a case study of a particular kind of complex predicate, that is, Romance auxiliaries. It focuses on Romanian ...
More
This chapter discusses the interface between syntax and argument structure. It considers a case study of a particular kind of complex predicate, that is, Romance auxiliaries. It focuses on Romanian auxiliaries, whose properties are compared with those of Italian, French, and Portuguese auxiliaries on one hand, and with those of Bulgarian and Macedonian auxiliaries on the other. The chapter proposes that an appropriate labor division between syntactic structure and argument structure can manage the idiosyncratic behavior of Romance tense auxiliaries, which has the status of simple clitics. It considers the role of argument structure in dealing with clitic climbing and argues whether syntax exists as an autonomous module of the grammar or whether it acts merely as an interface between form and meaning.Less
This chapter discusses the interface between syntax and argument structure. It considers a case study of a particular kind of complex predicate, that is, Romance auxiliaries. It focuses on Romanian auxiliaries, whose properties are compared with those of Italian, French, and Portuguese auxiliaries on one hand, and with those of Bulgarian and Macedonian auxiliaries on the other. The chapter proposes that an appropriate labor division between syntactic structure and argument structure can manage the idiosyncratic behavior of Romance tense auxiliaries, which has the status of simple clitics. It considers the role of argument structure in dealing with clitic climbing and argues whether syntax exists as an autonomous module of the grammar or whether it acts merely as an interface between form and meaning.
James Raven
- Published in print:
- 1992
- Published Online:
- October 2011
- ISBN:
- 9780198202370
- eISBN:
- 9780191675300
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198202370.003.0011
- Subject:
- History, British and Irish Modern History, Economic History
This chapter examines the increasing resentment against the social and political aspirations of businessmen in the late 18th century, as reflected in popular literature. These depictions focused on ...
More
This chapter examines the increasing resentment against the social and political aspirations of businessmen in the late 18th century, as reflected in popular literature. These depictions focused on three arriviste types: planters, manufacturers, and nabobs. Both the speed and the extent of social advancement were emphasized by novelists and magazine contributors. Sudden social climbing was portrayed as deceitful and dangerous, and writers touched upon many of the concerns discussed so far — the social and financial fears of luxury and fashion, the establishment of standards of taste, and the preservation of traditional features of status. Underpinning such contributions was the need to create a saleable cause to explain ills and to broadcast a simple, positive message. Many arguments were interwoven: their impact depended upon their interconnectedness and their confusion. By far the greatest attention was given to self-made men returning after service with the East India Company.Less
This chapter examines the increasing resentment against the social and political aspirations of businessmen in the late 18th century, as reflected in popular literature. These depictions focused on three arriviste types: planters, manufacturers, and nabobs. Both the speed and the extent of social advancement were emphasized by novelists and magazine contributors. Sudden social climbing was portrayed as deceitful and dangerous, and writers touched upon many of the concerns discussed so far — the social and financial fears of luxury and fashion, the establishment of standards of taste, and the preservation of traditional features of status. Underpinning such contributions was the need to create a saleable cause to explain ills and to broadcast a simple, positive message. Many arguments were interwoven: their impact depended upon their interconnectedness and their confusion. By far the greatest attention was given to self-made men returning after service with the East India Company.
Heiko Narrog
- Published in print:
- 2012
- Published Online:
- September 2012
- ISBN:
- 9780199694372
- eISBN:
- 9780191742279
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199694372.003.0003
- Subject:
- Linguistics, Semantics and Pragmatics
After clarifying basic terms and concepts in the area of semantic change in section 1, extant hypotheses on semantic change in modality are discussed in section 2. Section 3 presents a personal view ...
More
After clarifying basic terms and concepts in the area of semantic change in section 1, extant hypotheses on semantic change in modality are discussed in section 2. Section 3 presents a personal view of semantic change in modality, which is defined by the following overall tendencies: first, semantic change as category climbing, that is, change from lower to higher categories in semantic and syntactic hierarchical clause structures, and second, increase in speech‐act‐orientation, including speaker‐orientation (subjectivity), hearer‐orientation (intersubjectivity), and discourse‐orientation.Less
After clarifying basic terms and concepts in the area of semantic change in section 1, extant hypotheses on semantic change in modality are discussed in section 2. Section 3 presents a personal view of semantic change in modality, which is defined by the following overall tendencies: first, semantic change as category climbing, that is, change from lower to higher categories in semantic and syntactic hierarchical clause structures, and second, increase in speech‐act‐orientation, including speaker‐orientation (subjectivity), hearer‐orientation (intersubjectivity), and discourse‐orientation.
Liliane Haegeman
- Published in print:
- 2011
- Published Online:
- May 2011
- ISBN:
- 9780199740376
- eISBN:
- 9780199895304
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199740376.003.0010
- Subject:
- Linguistics, Syntax and Morphology
This chapter is concerned with the restrictions on clitic climbing with Italian sembrare. For some speakers sembrare may behave either as a lexical verb and resist clitic climbing, or as a ...
More
This chapter is concerned with the restrictions on clitic climbing with Italian sembrare. For some speakers sembrare may behave either as a lexical verb and resist clitic climbing, or as a restructuring verb, allowing clitic climbing (Cinque 1999, 2002, 2004). However, even for the latter speakers, clitic climbing is excluded with certain modal or aspectual auxiliaries, in conditional clauses and in the complements of factive verbs. This chapter provides evidence that ‘restructuring’ sembrare is inserted in the head encoding evidential mood (Cinque 2004). Speaker-related modal markers must be licensed by Force, in the left periphery. The left periphery of conditional clauses and of the complements of factive predicates lacks Force; as a result, speaker-oriented modal markers, among which evidential markers, are excluded, hence evidential sembrare cannot be licensed. The absence of Force in conditional clauses will be shown to follow from the movement analysis of such clauses.Less
This chapter is concerned with the restrictions on clitic climbing with Italian sembrare. For some speakers sembrare may behave either as a lexical verb and resist clitic climbing, or as a restructuring verb, allowing clitic climbing (Cinque 1999, 2002, 2004). However, even for the latter speakers, clitic climbing is excluded with certain modal or aspectual auxiliaries, in conditional clauses and in the complements of factive verbs. This chapter provides evidence that ‘restructuring’ sembrare is inserted in the head encoding evidential mood (Cinque 2004). Speaker-related modal markers must be licensed by Force, in the left periphery. The left periphery of conditional clauses and of the complements of factive predicates lacks Force; as a result, speaker-oriented modal markers, among which evidential markers, are excluded, hence evidential sembrare cannot be licensed. The absence of Force in conditional clauses will be shown to follow from the movement analysis of such clauses.
Wolfram Manzenreiter
- Published in print:
- 2011
- Published Online:
- March 2012
- ISBN:
- 9780520267374
- eISBN:
- 9780520950320
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- University of California Press
- DOI:
- 10.1525/california/9780520267374.003.0011
- Subject:
- Sociology, Gender and Sexuality
This chapter examines the potential of alternative sports for the creation of new and alternative masculinities in Japan. It focuses on the sport of free-climbing, which despite its inherent ...
More
This chapter examines the potential of alternative sports for the creation of new and alternative masculinities in Japan. It focuses on the sport of free-climbing, which despite its inherent androgynous characteristics, as with other alternative sports, is highly gendered in conventional way. While heteronormative ideas of a natural or naturalized gender order persist, alternative sports and similar countercultures provide opportunities for popularizing new and alternative masculinities. In this chapter, the research data are based on an extensive participant observation between two different groups of free climbers from western Japan in the years 1995 and 1996. The chapter starts with an overview of free-climbing in Japan. The proceeding sections explore the mechanisms of inclusion and exclusion, the importance of the body, and various markers of status differentiation and status inversion within the subculture. The chapter concludes by discussing the appropriateness of androgyny as a concept in sports and by providing comments on the variability and plurality of masculine identities among Japanese free climbers.Less
This chapter examines the potential of alternative sports for the creation of new and alternative masculinities in Japan. It focuses on the sport of free-climbing, which despite its inherent androgynous characteristics, as with other alternative sports, is highly gendered in conventional way. While heteronormative ideas of a natural or naturalized gender order persist, alternative sports and similar countercultures provide opportunities for popularizing new and alternative masculinities. In this chapter, the research data are based on an extensive participant observation between two different groups of free climbers from western Japan in the years 1995 and 1996. The chapter starts with an overview of free-climbing in Japan. The proceeding sections explore the mechanisms of inclusion and exclusion, the importance of the body, and various markers of status differentiation and status inversion within the subculture. The chapter concludes by discussing the appropriateness of androgyny as a concept in sports and by providing comments on the variability and plurality of masculine identities among Japanese free climbers.
James Peacock
- Published in print:
- 2012
- Published Online:
- May 2014
- ISBN:
- 9780719082672
- eISBN:
- 9781781706299
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Manchester University Press
- DOI:
- 10.7228/manchester/9780719082672.003.0004
- Subject:
- Literature, American, 20th Century Literature
Lethem's third novel is a campus comedy, but is yet again inflected with science fiction. The chapter argues that the campus comedy is an ideal genre for exploring Lethem's concerns because it has ...
More
Lethem's third novel is a campus comedy, but is yet again inflected with science fiction. The chapter argues that the campus comedy is an ideal genre for exploring Lethem's concerns because it has long been concerned with closed worlds, disciplinarity and isolation. At the heart of As She Climbed Across the Table is “Lack,” a hole in the fabric of the universe formed after a failed physics experiment. The hole is a surreal concrete metaphor for a recurring theme in Lethem's work – lack or traumatic loss. The various characters in the novel, it is argued, frantically try to compensate for their lack of understanding of “Lack” by attempting to claim it for their disciplines, and by using language to explain and therefore own it. In the end, the chapter states, this novel is chiefly concerned with the inescapability and inefficacy of language as a compensation for loss.Less
Lethem's third novel is a campus comedy, but is yet again inflected with science fiction. The chapter argues that the campus comedy is an ideal genre for exploring Lethem's concerns because it has long been concerned with closed worlds, disciplinarity and isolation. At the heart of As She Climbed Across the Table is “Lack,” a hole in the fabric of the universe formed after a failed physics experiment. The hole is a surreal concrete metaphor for a recurring theme in Lethem's work – lack or traumatic loss. The various characters in the novel, it is argued, frantically try to compensate for their lack of understanding of “Lack” by attempting to claim it for their disciplines, and by using language to explain and therefore own it. In the end, the chapter states, this novel is chiefly concerned with the inescapability and inefficacy of language as a compensation for loss.
Daniel R. Huebner
- Published in print:
- 2014
- Published Online:
- May 2015
- ISBN:
- 9780226171371
- eISBN:
- 9780226171548
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- University of Chicago Press
- DOI:
- 10.7208/chicago/9780226171548.003.0003
- Subject:
- Sociology, Social Theory
Chapter 3 investigates the wide-ranging significance of colonial Hawaii for George Herbert Mead. He became emotionally invested in Hawaii from his college days, as his closest personal relationships ...
More
Chapter 3 investigates the wide-ranging significance of colonial Hawaii for George Herbert Mead. He became emotionally invested in Hawaii from his college days, as his closest personal relationships and most affecting personal losses were directly tied to those islands. By the time he first visited in 1897, Mead had been exposed to ardent talk and vivid images of the people and places, especially in relation to revolution and annexation. Over his thirteen long sojourns there, Mead was introduced firsthand to its pressing social issues by leading citizens, and became a participant in its public debates. He served on an official behalf for the Territory of Hawaii and explored its landscapes, all the while reflecting on the broader significance of its problems and placing them in dialogue with analogous issues elsewhere. In Hawaii, Mead occupied a peculiar role, as someone fundamentally dependent on personal guides, especially his wife Helen Castle Mead, for his participation in and understanding of the social landscape. This focus on Hawaii helps specify Mead's reform work and theorizing about democratic societies, and it provides an opportunity to reformulate the nature of “context” as an analytical conceptLess
Chapter 3 investigates the wide-ranging significance of colonial Hawaii for George Herbert Mead. He became emotionally invested in Hawaii from his college days, as his closest personal relationships and most affecting personal losses were directly tied to those islands. By the time he first visited in 1897, Mead had been exposed to ardent talk and vivid images of the people and places, especially in relation to revolution and annexation. Over his thirteen long sojourns there, Mead was introduced firsthand to its pressing social issues by leading citizens, and became a participant in its public debates. He served on an official behalf for the Territory of Hawaii and explored its landscapes, all the while reflecting on the broader significance of its problems and placing them in dialogue with analogous issues elsewhere. In Hawaii, Mead occupied a peculiar role, as someone fundamentally dependent on personal guides, especially his wife Helen Castle Mead, for his participation in and understanding of the social landscape. This focus on Hawaii helps specify Mead's reform work and theorizing about democratic societies, and it provides an opportunity to reformulate the nature of “context” as an analytical concept
David A. West
- Published in print:
- 2016
- Published Online:
- January 2017
- ISBN:
- 9780813062600
- eISBN:
- 9780813051581
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- University Press of Florida
- DOI:
- 10.5744/florida/9780813062600.003.0006
- Subject:
- Society and Culture, Latin American Studies
Müller reacted to Darwin in three phases. First, between 1861 and 1863 he restructured his own research after reading Darwin’s Origin. Next, in 1865, he initiated correspondence with Darwin in direct ...
More
Müller reacted to Darwin in three phases. First, between 1861 and 1863 he restructured his own research after reading Darwin’s Origin. Next, in 1865, he initiated correspondence with Darwin in direct engagement of Darwin’s projects. Third, after returning to Blumenau in 1867, he developed research on new groups of organisms. Three topics pursued by Müller between 1865 and 1867 were stimulated directly by Darwin: climbing plants (over 50 genera near Desterro with disparate ways of twining, some new to Darwin); heterostyly; and complex orchid adaptations affecting fertilization involving coadaptations with insect pollinators. Much of Müller’s research on orchids is now lost; it was set aside for an abandoned book project. His independent research often engaged Darwinian topics, including species formation, adaptations of plants to prevent self-fertilization, and the role of natural selection in shaping plant–insect coadaptations. The chapter also covers the changing fortunes of the Blumenau colony and August and Fritz Müller’s efforts to devise and teach improved agricultural methods.Less
Müller reacted to Darwin in three phases. First, between 1861 and 1863 he restructured his own research after reading Darwin’s Origin. Next, in 1865, he initiated correspondence with Darwin in direct engagement of Darwin’s projects. Third, after returning to Blumenau in 1867, he developed research on new groups of organisms. Three topics pursued by Müller between 1865 and 1867 were stimulated directly by Darwin: climbing plants (over 50 genera near Desterro with disparate ways of twining, some new to Darwin); heterostyly; and complex orchid adaptations affecting fertilization involving coadaptations with insect pollinators. Much of Müller’s research on orchids is now lost; it was set aside for an abandoned book project. His independent research often engaged Darwinian topics, including species formation, adaptations of plants to prevent self-fertilization, and the role of natural selection in shaping plant–insect coadaptations. The chapter also covers the changing fortunes of the Blumenau colony and August and Fritz Müller’s efforts to devise and teach improved agricultural methods.
Stephen F. Siebert
- Published in print:
- 2012
- Published Online:
- November 2016
- ISBN:
- 9780824835361
- eISBN:
- 9780824871826
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- University of Hawai'i Press
- DOI:
- 10.21313/hawaii/9780824835361.003.0002
- Subject:
- Anthropology, Asian Cultural Anthropology
This chapter discusses the ecology, diversity, and climbing ability of rattan. It begins with an overview of the biodiversity of tropical forests as well as rattan genera, number of species, and ...
More
This chapter discusses the ecology, diversity, and climbing ability of rattan. It begins with an overview of the biodiversity of tropical forests as well as rattan genera, number of species, and their distribution. It then considers the range of ecological conditions under which rattans grow and the importance of water, especially soil moisture, in the diversity, abundance, growth, and development of rattans. It also examines the relationship between rattans and ants, along with the evolution of rattan's climbing organs. Finally, it describes the role of rattan in the formation of canopy gaps and in subsequent plant succession and species composition.Less
This chapter discusses the ecology, diversity, and climbing ability of rattan. It begins with an overview of the biodiversity of tropical forests as well as rattan genera, number of species, and their distribution. It then considers the range of ecological conditions under which rattans grow and the importance of water, especially soil moisture, in the diversity, abundance, growth, and development of rattans. It also examines the relationship between rattans and ants, along with the evolution of rattan's climbing organs. Finally, it describes the role of rattan in the formation of canopy gaps and in subsequent plant succession and species composition.
Michael S. Reidy
- Published in print:
- 2014
- Published Online:
- September 2014
- ISBN:
- 9780226109503
- eISBN:
- 9780226109640
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- University of Chicago Press
- DOI:
- 10.7208/chicago/9780226109640.003.0003
- Subject:
- History, History of Science, Technology, and Medicine
A disproportionately large percentage of the most prominent evolutionary naturalists, and almost every member of the X-Club, traveled and climbed in the Swiss Alps. John Tyndall and Leslie Stephen, ...
More
A disproportionately large percentage of the most prominent evolutionary naturalists, and almost every member of the X-Club, traveled and climbed in the Swiss Alps. John Tyndall and Leslie Stephen, in particular, were simultaneously the most vocal of the evolutionary naturalists and the two most accomplished alpinists of their age. The height of their climbing came in the early 1860s, the same years in which they formulated their agnosticism. This paper will examine their journals and letters to uncover the role that mountaineering played as they formulated and defended a naturalistic framework. The questions the mountains forced them to ask, whether through beauty or desolation, order or chaos (what William Clifford termed “cosmic emotion”) helped influence their common project of formulating an ethic based on nature rather than God.Less
A disproportionately large percentage of the most prominent evolutionary naturalists, and almost every member of the X-Club, traveled and climbed in the Swiss Alps. John Tyndall and Leslie Stephen, in particular, were simultaneously the most vocal of the evolutionary naturalists and the two most accomplished alpinists of their age. The height of their climbing came in the early 1860s, the same years in which they formulated their agnosticism. This paper will examine their journals and letters to uncover the role that mountaineering played as they formulated and defended a naturalistic framework. The questions the mountains forced them to ask, whether through beauty or desolation, order or chaos (what William Clifford termed “cosmic emotion”) helped influence their common project of formulating an ethic based on nature rather than God.
Christina Tortora
- Published in print:
- 2014
- Published Online:
- December 2014
- ISBN:
- 9780199945627
- eISBN:
- 9780199369829
- Item type:
- book
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199945627.001.0001
- Subject:
- Linguistics, Syntax and Morphology
This book presents and analyzes various features of the morpho-syntax of Borgomanerese, a Gallo-Italic dialect spoken in the town of Borgomanero, in the Piedmont region of Northern Italy. The study ...
More
This book presents and analyzes various features of the morpho-syntax of Borgomanerese, a Gallo-Italic dialect spoken in the town of Borgomanero, in the Piedmont region of Northern Italy. The study is comparative, drawing on the literature on numerous other Italian dialects and Romance languages (as well as English) to inform our understanding of the Borgomanerese phenomena. In turn, this work takes the many unusual and understudied (and often novel) facts of Borgomanerese grammar as compelling grounds for revisiting and reformulating current analyses of syntactic phenomena in these other languages. The phenomena treated include the syntax and semantics of the weak locative in presentational sentences, the syntax of object clitics and argument prepositions, the syntax of subjects and subject clitics, the syntax of interrogatives, clausal architecture, and the relationship between orthography and theoretical analysis. The principal value of this work lies both in the rich description of the morphosyntactic phenomena of Borgomanerese, many of which have not been previously reported in the literature, and in the consequent novel analyses developed, which contribute insights for other languages and dialects, and advance our understanding of syntax and syntactic theory in general.Less
This book presents and analyzes various features of the morpho-syntax of Borgomanerese, a Gallo-Italic dialect spoken in the town of Borgomanero, in the Piedmont region of Northern Italy. The study is comparative, drawing on the literature on numerous other Italian dialects and Romance languages (as well as English) to inform our understanding of the Borgomanerese phenomena. In turn, this work takes the many unusual and understudied (and often novel) facts of Borgomanerese grammar as compelling grounds for revisiting and reformulating current analyses of syntactic phenomena in these other languages. The phenomena treated include the syntax and semantics of the weak locative in presentational sentences, the syntax of object clitics and argument prepositions, the syntax of subjects and subject clitics, the syntax of interrogatives, clausal architecture, and the relationship between orthography and theoretical analysis. The principal value of this work lies both in the rich description of the morphosyntactic phenomena of Borgomanerese, many of which have not been previously reported in the literature, and in the consequent novel analyses developed, which contribute insights for other languages and dialects, and advance our understanding of syntax and syntactic theory in general.
John Montgomery and David Bodznick
- Published in print:
- 2016
- Published Online:
- January 2017
- ISBN:
- 9780198758860
- eISBN:
- 9780191834752
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198758860.003.0003
- Subject:
- Neuroscience, Development, Molecular and Cellular Systems
Understanding the neuronal structure of the cerebellum is essential to understanding its function. Purkinje cells are the only output neuron of the cerebellar cortex, and they receive two very ...
More
Understanding the neuronal structure of the cerebellum is essential to understanding its function. Purkinje cells are the only output neuron of the cerebellar cortex, and they receive two very contrasting inputs: a single climbing fibre and thousands of parallel fibres. The climbing fibre provides the signal to drive learning at the synapses between parallel fibres and the Purkinje cell. The parallel fibres come from granule cells that relay extrinsic input to the cerebellum; it is granule cells that make up the vast majority of cerebellar neurons. The Purkinje cell and its inputs make up the adaptive filter motif. A simplified version of the cerebellum is found in the cerebellum-like structures in the hindbrain of basal vertebrates.Less
Understanding the neuronal structure of the cerebellum is essential to understanding its function. Purkinje cells are the only output neuron of the cerebellar cortex, and they receive two very contrasting inputs: a single climbing fibre and thousands of parallel fibres. The climbing fibre provides the signal to drive learning at the synapses between parallel fibres and the Purkinje cell. The parallel fibres come from granule cells that relay extrinsic input to the cerebellum; it is granule cells that make up the vast majority of cerebellar neurons. The Purkinje cell and its inputs make up the adaptive filter motif. A simplified version of the cerebellum is found in the cerebellum-like structures in the hindbrain of basal vertebrates.
Adam Ledgeway
- Published in print:
- 2015
- Published Online:
- April 2015
- ISBN:
- 9780199687923
- eISBN:
- 9780191767319
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199687923.003.0009
- Subject:
- Linguistics, Historical Linguistics, Syntax and Morphology
Salentino dialects are reported to display a Greek‐style dual complementizer system, with propositional and irrealis complements introduced by the complementizers ca and cu, respectively, the latter ...
More
Salentino dialects are reported to display a Greek‐style dual complementizer system, with propositional and irrealis complements introduced by the complementizers ca and cu, respectively, the latter optionally undergoing C‐drop. Following an examination of the differential distribution of cu‐drop in northern and central‐southern dialects, it is argued that the latter, in which cu‐drop emerged as the output of an optional rule of PF‐deletion, must represent a more conservative variety and, ultimately, the stage which underlies the subsequent development seen in the dialects to the north of the region. In these latter dialects, the original PF‐deletion rule was reanalysed as a case of syntactic deletion, with concomitant pruning of the CP layer and all that entails (clitic climbing, obligatory subject coreference, and loss of the null irrealis complementizer). The most important consequence of this reanalysis is shown to lie in the novel refunctionalization of the original C‐determined consonantal lengthening on the embedded verb, which has been exapted as an independent reflex of irrealis subjunctive marking on the embedded T head.Less
Salentino dialects are reported to display a Greek‐style dual complementizer system, with propositional and irrealis complements introduced by the complementizers ca and cu, respectively, the latter optionally undergoing C‐drop. Following an examination of the differential distribution of cu‐drop in northern and central‐southern dialects, it is argued that the latter, in which cu‐drop emerged as the output of an optional rule of PF‐deletion, must represent a more conservative variety and, ultimately, the stage which underlies the subsequent development seen in the dialects to the north of the region. In these latter dialects, the original PF‐deletion rule was reanalysed as a case of syntactic deletion, with concomitant pruning of the CP layer and all that entails (clitic climbing, obligatory subject coreference, and loss of the null irrealis complementizer). The most important consequence of this reanalysis is shown to lie in the novel refunctionalization of the original C‐determined consonantal lengthening on the embedded verb, which has been exapted as an independent reflex of irrealis subjunctive marking on the embedded T head.
Christina Tortora
- Published in print:
- 2014
- Published Online:
- December 2014
- ISBN:
- 9780199945627
- eISBN:
- 9780199369829
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199945627.003.0003
- Subject:
- Linguistics, Syntax and Morphology
This chapter provides a detailed description and analysis of the syntax of complement clitics in Borgomanerese (a “generalized enclisis” dialect), which is relatively unusual in the Romance realm. ...
More
This chapter provides a detailed description and analysis of the syntax of complement clitics in Borgomanerese (a “generalized enclisis” dialect), which is relatively unusual in the Romance realm. The theory of object clitic placement in Borgomanerese offered in this chapter provides a ground on which to revisit object clitic syntax in Romance more generally, which in turn leads to novel analyses which capture previously unnoted cross-linguistic generalizations. The chapter contributes novel insights about adverb movement, the structure of past participles, past participle movement, the featural composition of functional heads, the featural composition of object clitics, the relation between object clitics and functional heads, the nature of syntactically determined allomorphy, the nature of restructuring, the structure of clauses selected by functional and nonfinite verbal forms, and the similarity between imperative and nonfinite clauses.Less
This chapter provides a detailed description and analysis of the syntax of complement clitics in Borgomanerese (a “generalized enclisis” dialect), which is relatively unusual in the Romance realm. The theory of object clitic placement in Borgomanerese offered in this chapter provides a ground on which to revisit object clitic syntax in Romance more generally, which in turn leads to novel analyses which capture previously unnoted cross-linguistic generalizations. The chapter contributes novel insights about adverb movement, the structure of past participles, past participle movement, the featural composition of functional heads, the featural composition of object clitics, the relation between object clitics and functional heads, the nature of syntactically determined allomorphy, the nature of restructuring, the structure of clauses selected by functional and nonfinite verbal forms, and the similarity between imperative and nonfinite clauses.
Ian Roberts
- Published in print:
- 2016
- Published Online:
- August 2016
- ISBN:
- 9780199677108
- eISBN:
- 9780191808821
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199677108.003.0048
- Subject:
- Linguistics, Language Families, Historical Linguistics
The main goal of this chapter is to critically address from a comparative perspective some of the most important issues regarding the syntax of Romance objects clitics. The chapter covers such areas ...
More
The main goal of this chapter is to critically address from a comparative perspective some of the most important issues regarding the syntax of Romance objects clitics. The chapter covers such areas as distribution, licensing, and co-occurrence of different classes of object clitic; distribution of proclisis, enclisis, and mesoclisis; clitic climbing; object doubling and compatibility with different classes of object; interpolation structures. Specific topics dealt with include: licensing object-clitic positions; person-case constraints; distribution of object clitics in non-finite clauses; infinitives; past participles; gerunds; proclisis, enclisis, and mesoclisis; European Portuguese and Galician; enclisis patterns in old Romance: The Tobler-Mussafia Law; mesoclisis in old Romance; clitic climbing; clitic climbing and restructuring; clitic climbing in causatives; clitic-climbing and auxiliaries; clitic doubling.Less
The main goal of this chapter is to critically address from a comparative perspective some of the most important issues regarding the syntax of Romance objects clitics. The chapter covers such areas as distribution, licensing, and co-occurrence of different classes of object clitic; distribution of proclisis, enclisis, and mesoclisis; clitic climbing; object doubling and compatibility with different classes of object; interpolation structures. Specific topics dealt with include: licensing object-clitic positions; person-case constraints; distribution of object clitics in non-finite clauses; infinitives; past participles; gerunds; proclisis, enclisis, and mesoclisis; European Portuguese and Galician; enclisis patterns in old Romance: The Tobler-Mussafia Law; mesoclisis in old Romance; clitic climbing; clitic climbing and restructuring; clitic climbing in causatives; clitic-climbing and auxiliaries; clitic doubling.
Michelle Sheehan
- Published in print:
- 2016
- Published Online:
- August 2016
- ISBN:
- 9780199677108
- eISBN:
- 9780191808821
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199677108.003.0061
- Subject:
- Linguistics, Language Families, Historical Linguistics
The main goal of this chapter is to provide a descriptive and critical overview of the some of the most striking and interesting problems and questions related to Romance complex predicates such as ...
More
The main goal of this chapter is to provide a descriptive and critical overview of the some of the most striking and interesting problems and questions related to Romance complex predicates such as causative and perception verb constructions, covering such areas as the properties of the Romance causative construction with reflexes of FACERE and LAXARE, including the distinction between faire-infinitif and faire-par, semantics and properties of infinitival subject, restructuring, clitic climbing, long object movement, auxiliary selection, past participle agreement, the distribution and expression of the embedded agent, argument marking with ditransitive infinitives, behaviour of reflexive predicates, and possible passivization; syntactic differences between the FACERE/LAXARE causative and the MANDARE causative; perception verb constructions and the optionality of restructuring.Less
The main goal of this chapter is to provide a descriptive and critical overview of the some of the most striking and interesting problems and questions related to Romance complex predicates such as causative and perception verb constructions, covering such areas as the properties of the Romance causative construction with reflexes of FACERE and LAXARE, including the distinction between faire-infinitif and faire-par, semantics and properties of infinitival subject, restructuring, clitic climbing, long object movement, auxiliary selection, past participle agreement, the distribution and expression of the embedded agent, argument marking with ditransitive infinitives, behaviour of reflexive predicates, and possible passivization; syntactic differences between the FACERE/LAXARE causative and the MANDARE causative; perception verb constructions and the optionality of restructuring.
Takeru Honda and Masao Ito
- Published in print:
- 2016
- Published Online:
- January 2017
- ISBN:
- 9780198749783
- eISBN:
- 9780191831638
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198749783.003.0002
- Subject:
- Psychology, Neuropsychology
Marr’s theory of the cerebellum in 1969 came as a great surprise. Since Albus published a similar theory two years later, these network theories have been collectively called the “Marr–Albus” model. ...
More
Marr’s theory of the cerebellum in 1969 came as a great surprise. Since Albus published a similar theory two years later, these network theories have been collectively called the “Marr–Albus” model. A major assumption adopted in this model is that numerous synapses supplied by parallel fibers to each Purkinje cell exhibit plasticity. Long-term potentiation (LTP) or depression (LTD) is induced upon conjunctive synapse activation by climbing fibers that convey a teacher’s signals. Over the past four decades, this assumption has been rigorously tested; as a result, it was found that parallel fiber–climbing fiber conjunctive activation induces LTD whereas parallel fiber stimulation alone induces LTP. Another major assumption in Marr’s model is the “codon” representation in the mossy fiber–granule cell arrangement, which has evolved to the “liquid-state machine” model having broad spatiotemporal representation. This model well explains the behaviors of granule and Purkinje cells in motor learning. Various types of synaptic plasticity have been found at many sites not only within the cerebellar cortex, but also in cerebellar and vestibular nuclei, and their specific roles have been defined partially. Modular units of cerebellar circuits provide two types of internal model, forward and inverse, to assist in the precise control of movements. Although the cerebellum’s roles in movements have been established, evidence suggests that the cerebellum plays roles also in cognition and emotion. Marr’s theory of the cerebellar cortex was the first huge step toward conjoint computational and experimental approaches to brain study.Less
Marr’s theory of the cerebellum in 1969 came as a great surprise. Since Albus published a similar theory two years later, these network theories have been collectively called the “Marr–Albus” model. A major assumption adopted in this model is that numerous synapses supplied by parallel fibers to each Purkinje cell exhibit plasticity. Long-term potentiation (LTP) or depression (LTD) is induced upon conjunctive synapse activation by climbing fibers that convey a teacher’s signals. Over the past four decades, this assumption has been rigorously tested; as a result, it was found that parallel fiber–climbing fiber conjunctive activation induces LTD whereas parallel fiber stimulation alone induces LTP. Another major assumption in Marr’s model is the “codon” representation in the mossy fiber–granule cell arrangement, which has evolved to the “liquid-state machine” model having broad spatiotemporal representation. This model well explains the behaviors of granule and Purkinje cells in motor learning. Various types of synaptic plasticity have been found at many sites not only within the cerebellar cortex, but also in cerebellar and vestibular nuclei, and their specific roles have been defined partially. Modular units of cerebellar circuits provide two types of internal model, forward and inverse, to assist in the precise control of movements. Although the cerebellum’s roles in movements have been established, evidence suggests that the cerebellum plays roles also in cognition and emotion. Marr’s theory of the cerebellar cortex was the first huge step toward conjoint computational and experimental approaches to brain study.
