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Crystal plasticity is overwhelmingly a consequence of the self similar translations of dislocations, which is viewed as a limiting form of more general shear transformations that also include twinning and martensitic transformations. Unlike elastic deformation, which can be homogeneous down to the atomic scale, plastic deformation involving dislocation translations or other shear transformations are locally discrete and inhomogeneous. Plasticity can be viewed as homogeneous only when the discrete processes are homogenized over a representative volume element (RVE), large enough to represent quasi-smooth behavior. Thus, for the purpose of viewing plasticity as a continuum field theory, its applicability is limited to volume elements no smaller than the RVE over which processes have been homogenized. In this chapter, the essential kinematics of inelastic deformation is introduced broadly. This is followed by the development of dislocation line properties that are associated with plastic strain production and the expenditure of plastic work in crystal plasticity, including concepts of dislocation line tension, dislocation mass, forms of interaction of dislocations with applied stresses, with each other, with free surfaces, and inhomogeneities. The principles of thermally activated deformation processes are introduced and then applied to dislocation glide and overcoming of local obstacles by thermal assistance. The detailed developments of dislocation properties emphasize face centered cubic crystals, including a full complement of partial dislocation and their dislocation.

Weasels are feisty little critters that hunt widely-dispersed and well-hidden prey with impressive predatory efficiency, willowy grace, and electric energy. Most predators tackling prey larger than themselves hunt in groups, but the larger weasels are astonishingly bold, often acting alone to attack a bird or rabbit twice their own size. Smaller weasels hunt by searching every hole, sniffing under fallen logs, following scent trails, and responding to any small sounds that might betray a hidden rodent. They climb trees and swim streams confidently; they burrow under snow and leaves, and patrol underground runways and nests, day and night. They make up in agility what they lack in stature by wrapping their long bodies around a struggling victim to hold it. Their galloping metabolism makes weasels always hungry, and the energy equations of weasel hunting are marginal at most times, but critical when rodent populations decline.

This chapter concerns mountain skis that are securely attached to the foot. Such skis allow various methods of hill climbing because they are easier to control than running skis that have no heel straps. One has to know how to climb a hill, ski back down while making turns, and in general control one's skis. Only then can one move about in variable terrain and perform jumps with confidence. The chapter shows that one can surmount a small slope without special exertion simply by lifting the front part of the skis and driving them back into the snow more forcefully, thereby preventing a slide backward.

This chapter discusses the interface between syntax and argument structure. It considers a case study of a particular kind of complex predicate, that is, Romance auxiliaries. It focuses on Romanian auxiliaries, whose properties are compared with those of Italian, French, and Portuguese auxiliaries on one hand, and with those of Bulgarian and Macedonian auxiliaries on the other. The chapter proposes that an appropriate labor division between syntactic structure and argument structure can manage the idiosyncratic behavior of Romance tense auxiliaries, which has the status of simple clitics. It considers the role of argument structure in dealing with clitic climbing and argues whether syntax exists as an autonomous module of the grammar or whether it acts merely as an interface between form and meaning.

After clarifying basic terms and concepts in the area of semantic change in section 1, extant hypotheses on semantic change in modality are discussed in section 2. Section 3 presents a personal view of semantic change in modality, which is defined by the following overall tendencies: first, semantic change as category climbing, that is, change from lower to higher categories in semantic and syntactic hierarchical clause structures, and second, increase in speech‐act‐orientation, including speaker‐orientation (subjectivity), hearer‐orientation (intersubjectivity), and discourse‐orientation.

This chapter is concerned with the restrictions on clitic climbing with Italian sembrare. For some speakers sembrare may behave either as a lexical verb and resist clitic climbing, or as a restructuring verb, allowing clitic climbing (Cinque 1999, 2002, 2004). However, even for the latter speakers, clitic climbing is excluded with certain modal or aspectual auxiliaries, in conditional clauses and in the complements of factive verbs. This chapter provides evidence that ‘restructuring’ sembrare is inserted in the head encoding evidential mood (Cinque 2004). Speaker-related modal markers must be licensed by Force, in the left periphery. The left periphery of conditional clauses and of the complements of factive predicates lacks Force; as a result, speaker-oriented modal markers, among which evidential markers, are excluded, hence evidential sembrare cannot be licensed. The absence of Force in conditional clauses will be shown to follow from the movement analysis of such clauses.

This chapter examines the potential of alternative sports for the creation of new and alternative masculinities in Japan. It focuses on the sport of free-climbing, which despite its inherent androgynous characteristics, as with other alternative sports, is highly gendered in conventional way. While heteronormative ideas of a natural or naturalized gender order persist, alternative sports and similar countercultures provide opportunities for popularizing new and alternative masculinities. In this chapter, the research data are based on an extensive participant observation between two different groups of free climbers from western Japan in the years 1995 and 1996. The chapter starts with an overview of free-climbing in Japan. The proceeding sections explore the mechanisms of inclusion and exclusion, the importance of the body, and various markers of status differentiation and status inversion within the subculture. The chapter concludes by discussing the appropriateness of androgyny as a concept in sports and by providing comments on the variability and plurality of masculine identities among Japanese free climbers.

Polymer products have long been used for a variety of applications in our daily lives, as well as for some more exotic applications, such as biomedical devices, superhigh- speed airplanes, and outer-space vehicles. Other applications are too numerous to mention them all here. There are many steps involved in the production of polymer products, from the synthesis of raw materials to the manufacturing of the finished products. Of the many steps involved, the fabrication (processing) step plays a pivotal role in determining the quality of the final products. Successful processing of polymeric materials requires a good understanding of their rheological behavior (Han 1976, 1981). Thus, intimate relationships exist between polymer rheology and polymer processing. In this chapter we describe briefly some of these close relationships between polymer rheology and polymer processing. Rheology is the science that deals with the deformation and flow of matter. Hence, polymer rheology is the science that deals with the deformation and flow of polymeric materials. Since there are a variety of polymeric materials, we can classify polymer rheology further into different categories, depending upon the nature of the polymeric materials; for instance, (1) the rheology of homogeneous polymers, (2) the rheology of miscible polymer blends, (3) the rheology of immiscible polymer blends, (4) the rheology of particulate-filled polymers, (5) the rheology of fiberglass-reinforced polymers, (6) the rheology of organoclay nanocomposites, (7) the rheology of polymeric foams, (8) the rheology of thermosets, (9) the rheology of block copolymers, and (10) the rheology of liquid-crystalline polymers. Each of these polymeric materials exhibits its own unique rheological characteristics. Thus, different theories are needed to interpret the experimental results of the rheological behavior of different polymeric materials. However, at present we do not have a comprehensive theory that can describe the rheological behavior of some polymeric materials and thus we must resort to empirical correlations to interpret the experimentally observed rheological behavior of those materials. It is then fair to state that a complete understanding of the rheological behavior of all polymeric materials remains quite a challenge indeed.

The southern Yucatán peninsular region contains the largest and most rapidly disappearing continuous tract of tropical forest in Mexico (Flores and Espejel Carvajal 1994; Delfín Gonzales, Parra, and Echazarreta 1995; Acopa and Boege 1998). Vegetation in the region is a mosaic of forest types with different structural appearances (Flores and Espejel Carvajal 1994; Hernández-Xolocotzi 1959; Miranda 1958) that primarily reflect variation in environmental and edaphic conditions (Ibarra-Manríquez 1996). However, the structure and tree composition of forests in the region, as elsewhere in the central Maya lowlands, has been and remains strongly influenced by human activity (Ch. 2). In spite of the abundance of botanical work throughout the Yucatán peninsula, little attention has been devoted to characterizing the forests in this frontier region quantitatively, and the variation and distribution of forests remain poorly documented. Yet, it is precisely this kind of documentation that is required for integrated land studies of the kind that the SYPR project is undertaking (Turner et al. 2001). Since the third decade of the twentieth century, botanical interest has focused on the flora of the Yucatán Peninsula, especially that located in the historically more accessible portion of the peninsula (Ibarra-Manríquez 1996). Early twentieth-century studies (Lundell 1938; Standley 1930) led to a broad classification of the primary vegetation as deciduous tropical forests (Miranda 1958), or evergreen tropical forests (Rzedowski 1981), controlled in distribution by the northwest to southeast precipitation gradient, distinctive dry season, and karstic terrain (Ch. 2). Today, the entire region is appropriately labeled a seasonally dry tropical forest (Bullock, Mooney, and Medina 1995). During the rainy season (May–October) most species have their canopies fully displayed and light is a limiting factor in the forest understory (Martínez-Ramos 1985, 1994). For the remainder of the year, monthly precipitation usually does not exceed 100mm. During the lowest rainfall months (February–April), water may become limiting and considerable defoliation takes place, especially in the north and west. Other factors controlling forest structure and composition include topography, twentieth-century land-use history, and hurricanes (Brokaw and Walker 1991; Cooper-Ellis et al. 1999).

The total area of agricultural systems in tropical Mexico increased by 64 per cent from 1977 to 1992—a mean annual deforestation rate of 1.9 per cent (Cairns et al. 2000). In all likelihood, this rate has continued for the past ten years. Dry tropical forest covers 8 per cent of Mexico and is subject to conversion for agricultural use (Trejo and Dirzo 2000). Because the southern Yucatán contains the largest contiguous block of dry tropical forest in Mexico and Central America, understanding the biogeochemical consequences of land-use change there is important for effective national and international conservation and development efforts. Over the past four decades the southern Yucatán peninsular region has undergone an increasing amount and intensity of land use (Chs. 3, 9, 10). These land uses, many focused on swidden practices, alter the structure and function of forested lands and often generate new feedbacks in terms of subsequent human use. Consequently, a major goal in assessing regional environmental change is to understand how biogeochemical processes respond to land-use change, emphasizing the potential of a human-dominated landscape to sustain continued human use. One of the greatest challenges in these studies is to untangle the effects of environmentally induced variation from, for example, climate, geology, or natural disturbance, from that induced by human activity. In the SYPR project the approach to this challenge has been to investigate variation in ecosystem processes in several study sites across the dominant environmental gradients while focusing on the influence of local, human-controlled factors within a given area. In the southern Yucatán peninsular region annual precipitation increases by more than 50 per cent over a distance of 120km. Median annual precipitation varies from about 900mm in the northern part of the study area to about 1,400mm in the southern part. This dramatic gradient overlies a seasonal pattern shared by all sites regardless of their total annual precipitation. Rainfall is highly variable, with a pronounced dry period lasting from four to six months, depending on latitude. The range in precipitation observed in the study area encompasses approximately 50 per cent of the variation in precipitation of dry tropical forests worldwide (Murphy and Lugo 1986).

This chapter examines the loss of clitic climbing in French from a Gallo-Romance perspective. A corpus of four hagiographical texts published in the second half of the seventeenth century is used to explore when clitic climbing ceased to be preferred in complex verbal predicates. The results confirm the main research hypothesis, namely that the variant with clitic climbing was retained for longer in texts published in Toulouse than in those published in Paris. The longer retention of clitic climbing is likely to be the effect of contact with varieties of Occitan in which clitic climbing was never lost. The results also contribute to research on text types in historical linguistics by showing that the change took place in the same way in hagiographical texts as it did in other types of text, even if there is variation regarding its dating.

By looking at the Union Internationale des Associations d’Alpinisme (UIAA, or International Mountaineering and Climbing Federation), an international organization created in 1932 “to promote mountaineering and climbing worldwide,” this chapter explores the “moral economy” of internationalism, or the dynamics through which internationalist groups used feelings to attribute moral values to specific beliefs and behaviors. It demonstrates that the UIAA used emotions to promote both its image and its mission. It presented alpinism as a means to engender “friendship” among nations, mimicking the League of Nations’ rhetoric and activities in this period. It also employed emotions as a tool to manage its relationships and as an essential ingredient to stage its events (e.g. international congresses and exhibitions). As such, it inaugurated a set of ideas and practices which would become normative in the subsequent decades.

A disproportionately large percentage of the most prominent evolutionary naturalists, and almost every member of the X-Club, traveled and climbed in the Swiss Alps. John Tyndall and Leslie Stephen, in particular, were simultaneously the most vocal of the evolutionary naturalists and the two most accomplished alpinists of their age. The height of their climbing came in the early 1860s, the same years in which they formulated their agnosticism. This paper will examine their journals and letters to uncover the role that mountaineering played as they formulated and defended a naturalistic framework. The questions the mountains forced them to ask, whether through beauty or desolation, order or chaos (what William Clifford termed “cosmic emotion”) helped influence their common project of formulating an ethic based on nature rather than God.

Lethem's third novel is a campus comedy, but is yet again inflected with science fiction. The chapter argues that the campus comedy is an ideal genre for exploring Lethem's concerns because it has long been concerned with closed worlds, disciplinarity and isolation. At the heart of As She Climbed Across the Table is “Lack,” a hole in the fabric of the universe formed after a failed physics experiment. The hole is a surreal concrete metaphor for a recurring theme in Lethem's work – lack or traumatic loss. The various characters in the novel, it is argued, frantically try to compensate for their lack of understanding of “Lack” by attempting to claim it for their disciplines, and by using language to explain and therefore own it. In the end, the chapter states, this novel is chiefly concerned with the inescapability and inefficacy of language as a compensation for loss.

Chapter 3 investigates the wide-ranging significance of colonial Hawaii for George Herbert Mead. He became emotionally invested in Hawaii from his college days, as his closest personal relationships and most affecting personal losses were directly tied to those islands. By the time he first visited in 1897, Mead had been exposed to ardent talk and vivid images of the people and places, especially in relation to revolution and annexation. Over his thirteen long sojourns there, Mead was introduced firsthand to its pressing social issues by leading citizens, and became a participant in its public debates. He served on an official behalf for the Territory of Hawaii and explored its landscapes, all the while reflecting on the broader significance of its problems and placing them in dialogue with analogous issues elsewhere. In Hawaii, Mead occupied a peculiar role, as someone fundamentally dependent on personal guides, especially his wife Helen Castle Mead, for his participation in and understanding of the social landscape. This focus on Hawaii helps specify Mead's reform work and theorizing about democratic societies, and it provides an opportunity to reformulate the nature of “context” as an analytical concept