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Grammatical Classes

Ronald W. Langacker

in Cognitive Grammar: A Basic Introduction

The standard doctrine that basic grammatical classes (parts of speech) are not semantically definable rests on erroneous assumptions about the nature of linguistic meaning. With a proper view of ... More

The standard doctrine that basic grammatical classes (parts of speech) are not semantically definable rests on erroneous assumptions about the nature of linguistic meaning. With a proper view of meaning, basic categories—notably noun and verb—have plausible conceptual characterizations at both the prototype level (for typical examples) and the schema level (valid for all instances). The prototypes are based on conceptual archetypes: objects for nouns, and actions for verbs. The schemas are independent of any particular conceptual content, residing instead in basic cognitive abilities immanent in the archetypes: for nouns, grouping and reification; in the case of verbs, the ability to apprend relationships and to track their evolution through time. An expression's grammatical category specifically depends on the nature of its profile (not its overall content). Thus a noun profiles a thing (defined abstractly as any product of grouping and reification), while a verb profiles a process (a relationship tracked through time). Expressions that profile non-processual relationships include adjectives, adverbs, prepositions, infinitives, and participles. Relational expressions can be categorized in different ways, depending on factors like the number and type of focused participants, whether the profiled relation is simplex or complex, and whether it is apprehended holistically or sequentially. These characterizations prove efficacious in describing how relational expressions function as noun modifiers and in clausal organization.Less

Force and Provocation

Phil Branigan

in Provocative Syntax

This chapter analyzes Germanic embedded clause structure, in which provocation within the “left periphery” is shown to explain the distribution and intricacies of various types of complementizers ... More

This chapter analyzes Germanic embedded clause structure, in which provocation within the “left periphery” is shown to explain the distribution and intricacies of various types of complementizers across the language family. The discussions cover evidence for Fin-to-Force movement; wh-movement; and the distribution of embedded verb-second clauses.Less

Culture, Cognition, and the Grammar of ‘Give’ Clauses

JOHN NEWMAN

in Ethnosyntax: Explorations in Grammar and Culture

This chapter explores the extent to which the structure of ‘give’ clauses may be motivated by cultural and cognitive factors. It identifies three categories of the ‘give’ phenomena which are ... More

This chapter explores the extent to which the structure of ‘give’ clauses may be motivated by cultural and cognitive factors. It identifies three categories of the ‘give’ phenomena which are discussed in turn: (a) aspects of ‘give’ clause structure which are determined by a broad cognitive principle and have substantial cross-linguistic and cross-cultural variety; (b) aspects of ‘give’ clause structure which reflect an orientation or perspective but with significance in a larger culture and are culture- and language-specific; (c) and aspects of ‘give’ clause structure which have a special significance within a particular language system, but do not reflect larger cultural, non-linguistic values.Less

The clause and VP

Erich R. Round

in Kayardild Morphology and Syntax

Chapter 5 sets forth a formal analysis of inflectional features associated with full clauses and verb phrases (VPs). It examines sejunct and nonsejunct complementization and posits two ... More

Chapter 5 sets forth a formal analysis of inflectional features associated with full clauses and verb phrases (VPs). It examines sejunct and nonsejunct complementization and posits two complementization features, one of which blocks the realization of the other, and both of which attach to S-category nodes. Crucial evidence comes from topicalized and focalized DPs. Types of embedded S and VP and their permissible DP constituents are examined, with two new adverbial embedded VP types identified. Conditions on multiple verb heads are discussed, and arguments presented for the existence of two distinct verbal complement DP positions. An analysis of tense inflection motivates an articulated clause structure with features attaching, and DPs adjoining, at various heights. Arguments are furnished in defence of a syntactic analysis and against a diacritic analysis of the inflectional facts.Less

Syntax and discourse in Old and Middle English word order

Ans van Kemenade and Tanja Melićev

in Grammatical Change: Origins, Nature, Outcomes

This chapter presents an analysis of Old English word order in which discourse strategies are incorporated into a restrictive syntactic analysis. Building on recent work on clause structure in ... More

This chapter presents an analysis of Old English word order in which discourse strategies are incorporated into a restrictive syntactic analysis. Building on recent work on clause structure in general, and Old and Middle English clause structure in particular, it proposes an analysis of Old English which formulates a number of ways in which discourse strategies are mapped with available syntactic options. In this analysis, clause-internal temporal adverbs play a special role. These adverbs act as focus particles which serve to mark the boundary between topic and focus material in the clause. The topic part of the clause is analyzed in the discourse terms inherent in Rizzi's (1997) clausal architecture, which is, however, reformulated in the spirit of Nilsen (2003).The focus part of the clause is taken to be the (extended) VP-domain.Less

Background: The Articulated Structure of the Left Periphery

Liliane Haegeman

in Adverbial Clauses, Main Clause Phenomena, and the Composition of the Left Periphery: The Cartography of Syntactic Structures, Volume 8

This chapter provides some background to the book. It first briefly looks at the development of the generative conception of clause structure, with particular reference to the structure assigned to ... More

This chapter provides some background to the book. It first briefly looks at the development of the generative conception of clause structure, with particular reference to the structure assigned to the so-called left periphery of the clause, that is, the area to the left of the canonical subject position. The second half of the chapter zooms in on the left periphery of the English clause and examines, among other things, to what extent it would be feasible to derive the lineup of the constituents in the English left periphery purely from principles governing information structure. One central theme in the discussion is the question of whether it is necessary to exclude what is referred to as a “lower topic” (i.e., a topic projection dominated by the focus projection) in English. It is shown that it is not necessary to exclude the lower topic projection as such from the English left periphery. Rather, in many cases, the ban on placing constituents in the lower topic position can be derived as a consequence of locality conditions on head movement.Less

Modality and Semantic Change

Heiko Narrog

in Modality, Subjectivity, and Semantic Change: A Cross-Linguistic Perspective

After clarifying basic terms and concepts in the area of semantic change in section 1, extant hypotheses on semantic change in modality are discussed in section 2. Section 3 presents a personal view ... More

After clarifying basic terms and concepts in the area of semantic change in section 1, extant hypotheses on semantic change in modality are discussed in section 2. Section 3 presents a personal view of semantic change in modality, which is defined by the following overall tendencies: first, semantic change as category climbing, that is, change from lower to higher categories in semantic and syntactic hierarchical clause structures, and second, increase in speech‐act‐orientation, including speaker‐orientation (subjectivity), hearer‐orientation (intersubjectivity), and discourse‐orientation.Less

Mapping indexical and anaphoric CPs onto Plains Cree's morphosyntax

Clare Cook

in The Clause-Typing System of Plains Cree: Indexicality, Anaphoricity, and Contrast

Chapter 2 investigates the internal structure of Plains Cree verbal complexes, using evidence from the function, ordering, and distribution of morphology within the verbal complexes. Independent and ... More

Chapter 2 investigates the internal structure of Plains Cree verbal complexes, using evidence from the function, ordering, and distribution of morphology within the verbal complexes. Independent and conjunct order verbs share stem‐building and derivational‐level morphology, as well as tense/aspect/modality markers, but have two entirely different sets of inflectional agreement. It is argued that the peripheral agreement in both independent and conjunct verbs is discourse‐linked agreement, rather than theta‐ or grammatical‐function agreement. The conjunct order also has unique prefixes that have clause‐typing properties. The distinction between internal and external syntax of Plains Cree verbal complexes is addressed, and it is shown that the clause‐typing distinction between independent and conjunct order verbs cannot be reduced to a matrix/embedded distinction.Less

Introduction

Heiko Narrog

in Modality, Subjectivity, and Semantic Change: A Cross-Linguistic Perspective

Goals of this book — theoretical orientation/principles of the approach

Mayan Background and Clause Structure

Jessica Coon

in Aspects of Split Ergativity

This chapter provides background information on Mayan languages and Chol. It presents the basics of Mayan morphosyntax: predicate initiality, head-marking, root classification, stem formation, ... More

This chapter provides background information on Mayan languages and Chol. It presents the basics of Mayan morphosyntax: predicate initiality, head-marking, root classification, stem formation, aspect, and person-marking. It then provides a sketch of basic Chol clause structure and examines patterns of ergativity and split ergativity in the family. Following Larsen and Norman (1979), it shows that the majority of splits in Mayan can be analyzed as involving subordinate nominal forms, as proposed for Chol in the subsequent chapters. It discusses previous analyses in this vein, noting similarities and differences between these and the analysis in the present chapter.Less

Documenting Raising and Control in Moro

Peter Jenks and Sharon Rose

in Africa's Endangered Languages: Documentary and Theoretical Approaches

This chapter details classes of raising and control predicates in Moro and the different types of clausal complements for which these predicates select. It is demonstrated that Moro allows raising ... More

This chapter details classes of raising and control predicates in Moro and the different types of clausal complements for which these predicates select. It is demonstrated that Moro allows raising from both finite and non-finite complement clauses, while control predicates select only non-finite complements, including infinitival clauses and gerunds. Putative finite complements of control predicates are shown to be instances of No Control. In addition, the chapter examines the distribution of different classes of control and raising predicates relative to each other in order to motivate an articulated clausal structure for Moro. More generally, this chapter stands as a proof-of-concept that relatively simple diagnostic tests can be employed during linguistic elicitation to distinguish control from raising constructions. It is suggested that such tests comprise an essential component of linguistic documentation.Less

Clause Structure and the Syntax of Verbless Sentences

Elabbas Benmamoun

in Foundational Issues in Linguistic Theory: Essays in Honor of Jean-Roger Vergnaud

This chapter examines clause structure and the syntax of so-called verbless sentences, focusing on a key issue in the theory of clause structure that also engages the interface between syntax and ... More

This chapter examines clause structure and the syntax of so-called verbless sentences, focusing on a key issue in the theory of clause structure that also engages the interface between syntax and morphology: whether both tense and verb are universally projected elements in every clause. Drawing on a study of verbless sentences in Arabic, it argues that tense is universally projected but verb is not and proposes that tense is categorially defined in terms of a feature D (nominal) and an optional feature V (verbal). More specifically, it suggests that past tense is specified for both D- and V-features, while present tense is specified for a D-feature only. The chapter also considers whether verbless sentences have a verbal copula, sentential negation and tense, the morphology of tense, and the nominal feature of tense.Less

Word order change from a diachronic generative syntax perspective

Ana Maria Martins and Adriana Cardoso

in Word Order Change

This introductory overview chapter focuses on the relation between movement operations and word order by assembling the pieces of information offered by the book’s authors. It shows how the essays ... More

This introductory overview chapter focuses on the relation between movement operations and word order by assembling the pieces of information offered by the book’s authors. It shows how the essays published in the book indicate, when considered together, that word order change is mainly the effect of the interaction between clause structure and syntactic movement, thus identifying these two components of grammar as the main factors behind word order variation. It also demonstrates that the study of word order change (set within the framework of diachronic generative syntax) is a means to test the descriptive adequacy and explanatory potential of competing analyses of word order phenomena not restricted to historical change, and identifies (theoretical and empirical) research issues that emerge from the type of approach to word order change envisaged in the book.Less

Discontinuous noun phrases and remnant-internal relativization in the diachrony of Portuguese

Adriana Cardoso

in Word Order Change

This chapter investigates syntactic change regarding the availability of split noun phrases in relative clauses in the diachrony of Portuguese. In earlier stages of the language an element that is ... More

This chapter investigates syntactic change regarding the availability of split noun phrases in relative clauses in the diachrony of Portuguese. In earlier stages of the language an element that is thematically dependent on the head noun (either as a complement or as a modifier) may not appear adjacent to it but in a relative clause internal position. In Contemporary European Portuguese, noun phrase discontinuity also arises in relative clauses, but only with the modifier/complement in the rightmost position. The word order with the modifier/complement at the left periphery of the relative clause is not allowed. The change is explained as being due to the loss of a left-peripheral position for contrastive focus within relative clauses (and possibly other types of subordinate clauses). Hence, the contraction of clause structure and the concomitant loss of movement are taken to constrain the possibilities of phrasal discontinuity found in earlier periods.Less