Cordelia Beattie
- Published in print:
- 2007
- Published Online:
- September 2008
- ISBN:
- 9780199283415
- eISBN:
- 9780191712616
- Item type:
- book
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199283415.001.0001
- Subject:
- History, British and Irish Medieval History
This book is a focused study of the use of the category ‘single woman’ in late medieval England. In a culture in which marriage was the desirable norm and virginity was particularly prized in ...
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This book is a focused study of the use of the category ‘single woman’ in late medieval England. In a culture in which marriage was the desirable norm and virginity was particularly prized in females, the categories ‘virgin’ and ‘widow’ held particular significance. But the law gave unmarried women legal rights and responsibilities that were generally withheld from married women. The pervasiveness of religion and the law in people's day-to-day lives led to a complex interplay between moral and economic concerns in how medieval women were conceptualized. The result is different unmarried women are marked out as ‘single women’ in different contexts. This study is therefore revealing of the multiplicity of ways in which dominant cultural ideas impacted on medieval women. It also offers a way into the complex process of social classification in late medieval England. All societies use classificatory schemes in order to understand and to impose order on society. This study views classification as a political act: those classifying must make choices about what divisions are most important or about who falls into which category, and such choices have repercussions. When those classifying choose what defines a group or how an individual should be labelled, they choose between certain variables, such as social status, gender, or age, and decide which to prioritize. This study does not isolate gender as a variable, but examines how it relates to other social cleavages.Less
This book is a focused study of the use of the category ‘single woman’ in late medieval England. In a culture in which marriage was the desirable norm and virginity was particularly prized in females, the categories ‘virgin’ and ‘widow’ held particular significance. But the law gave unmarried women legal rights and responsibilities that were generally withheld from married women. The pervasiveness of religion and the law in people's day-to-day lives led to a complex interplay between moral and economic concerns in how medieval women were conceptualized. The result is different unmarried women are marked out as ‘single women’ in different contexts. This study is therefore revealing of the multiplicity of ways in which dominant cultural ideas impacted on medieval women. It also offers a way into the complex process of social classification in late medieval England. All societies use classificatory schemes in order to understand and to impose order on society. This study views classification as a political act: those classifying must make choices about what divisions are most important or about who falls into which category, and such choices have repercussions. When those classifying choose what defines a group or how an individual should be labelled, they choose between certain variables, such as social status, gender, or age, and decide which to prioritize. This study does not isolate gender as a variable, but examines how it relates to other social cleavages.
Peter A. Diamond
- Published in print:
- 2002
- Published Online:
- October 2011
- ISBN:
- 9780199247899
- eISBN:
- 9780191697692
- Item type:
- book
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199247899.001.0001
- Subject:
- Economics and Finance, Financial Economics, Public and Welfare
Social security systems are being reviewed and changed in many countries around the world. This book considers some of the key policy issues for design of a social security reform, as well as ...
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Social security systems are being reviewed and changed in many countries around the world. This book considers some of the key policy issues for design of a social security reform, as well as reviewing much of the academic literature on the positive and normative aspects of social security. The first chapter provides an examination of key policy issues of general concern includes the funding of social security, the comparison of defined benefit and defined contribution systems, notional defined contribution accounts, alternative approaches to organizing individual defined contribution accounts, and the provision of survivor benefits. The book then turns to the academic literature on the interactions between social security and the labor and capital markets, providing a non-technical overview of the existing literature and pointing-out gaps in current research findings. The second chapter reviews the impact on retirement decisions of forced savings, the use of an earnings or retirement test, mandated annuitization, recognizing heterogeneity in both life expectancy and possibly in risk classification for annuity pricing, and treatment of the family, particularly the use of joint-life annuitization. Also reviewed is the impact on labor supply at younger ages, considering mandatory savings and annuitization, contrasting defined benefit and defined contribution systems, and analysing alternative approaches to redistribution within social security. The final chapter covers issues of aggregate capital accumulation and risk-sharing, with the latter including the risks in annuitization, in the returns to capital, and in aggregate earnings. Also considered are the risks in the political process.Less
Social security systems are being reviewed and changed in many countries around the world. This book considers some of the key policy issues for design of a social security reform, as well as reviewing much of the academic literature on the positive and normative aspects of social security. The first chapter provides an examination of key policy issues of general concern includes the funding of social security, the comparison of defined benefit and defined contribution systems, notional defined contribution accounts, alternative approaches to organizing individual defined contribution accounts, and the provision of survivor benefits. The book then turns to the academic literature on the interactions between social security and the labor and capital markets, providing a non-technical overview of the existing literature and pointing-out gaps in current research findings. The second chapter reviews the impact on retirement decisions of forced savings, the use of an earnings or retirement test, mandated annuitization, recognizing heterogeneity in both life expectancy and possibly in risk classification for annuity pricing, and treatment of the family, particularly the use of joint-life annuitization. Also reviewed is the impact on labor supply at younger ages, considering mandatory savings and annuitization, contrasting defined benefit and defined contribution systems, and analysing alternative approaches to redistribution within social security. The final chapter covers issues of aggregate capital accumulation and risk-sharing, with the latter including the risks in annuitization, in the returns to capital, and in aggregate earnings. Also considered are the risks in the political process.
Andrew J. Connolly, Jacob T. VanderPlas, Alexander Gray, Andrew J. Connolly, Jacob T. VanderPlas, and Alexander Gray
- Published in print:
- 2014
- Published Online:
- October 2017
- ISBN:
- 9780691151687
- eISBN:
- 9781400848911
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Princeton University Press
- DOI:
- 10.23943/princeton/9780691151687.003.0009
- Subject:
- Physics, Particle Physics / Astrophysics / Cosmology
Chapter 6 described techniques for estimating joint probability distributions from multivariate data sets and for identifying the inherent clustering within the properties of sources. This approach ...
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Chapter 6 described techniques for estimating joint probability distributions from multivariate data sets and for identifying the inherent clustering within the properties of sources. This approach can be viewed as the unsupervised classification of data. If, however, we have labels for some of these data points (e.g., an object is tall, short, red, or blue) we can utilize this information to develop a relationship between the label and the properties of a source. We refer to this as supervised classification, which is the focus of this chapter. The motivation for supervised classification comes from the long history of classification in astronomy. Possibly the most well known of these classification schemes is that defined by Edwin Hubble for the morphological classification of galaxies based on their visual appearance. This chapter discusses generative classification, k-nearest-neighbor classifier, discriminative classification, support vector machines, decision trees, and evaluating classifiers.Less
Chapter 6 described techniques for estimating joint probability distributions from multivariate data sets and for identifying the inherent clustering within the properties of sources. This approach can be viewed as the unsupervised classification of data. If, however, we have labels for some of these data points (e.g., an object is tall, short, red, or blue) we can utilize this information to develop a relationship between the label and the properties of a source. We refer to this as supervised classification, which is the focus of this chapter. The motivation for supervised classification comes from the long history of classification in astronomy. Possibly the most well known of these classification schemes is that defined by Edwin Hubble for the morphological classification of galaxies based on their visual appearance. This chapter discusses generative classification, k-nearest-neighbor classifier, discriminative classification, support vector machines, decision trees, and evaluating classifiers.
Karen Chase
- Published in print:
- 2009
- Published Online:
- September 2009
- ISBN:
- 9780199564361
- eISBN:
- 9780191722592
- Item type:
- book
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199564361.001.0001
- Subject:
- Literature, 19th-century and Victorian Literature, 20th-century Literature and Modernism
This book examines old age as it was culturally constructed in the 19th century. It begins with the agitated relations set in motion when the increasing number of elderly people unable to provide ...
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This book examines old age as it was culturally constructed in the 19th century. It begins with the agitated relations set in motion when the increasing number of elderly people unable to provide adequately for themselves found it necessary to contend with sciences which would classify them, arts which would represent them, and a state which was slow to adopt measures of support. The book analyzes illuminating moments in these relations which are displayed variously in narrative form, social policy and cultural attitudes. It considers the centrality of institutions and of the generational divide; it traces the power and powerlessness of age through a range of characters and individuals as distinct from one another as Dickens's inebriated nurse, Sairey Gamp, to the sober Queen Victoria; it studies specific narrative forms for expressing heightened emotions attached to aging and the complexities of representing age in pictorial and statistical “portraits.” The chapters are organized around major literary works set alongside episodes and artifacts, diaries and memoirs, images and inscriptions, that produced (and now illuminate) the construction of old age through Victoria's long reign. The argument demonstrates that if old age became for the Victorians such a conspicuous public topic and problem, it also became an intensely private preoccupation. The social formation of old age created terms, images, and narratives that lone individuals used to fashion the stories of their lives. The book is intent to respect the specificity of aging: not only the wide diversities of circumstance (rich and poor, urban and rural, watched and forgotten, powerful and dispossessed) but also the distinct acts of representation by novelists, painters, journalists, sociologists and diary-keepers.Less
This book examines old age as it was culturally constructed in the 19th century. It begins with the agitated relations set in motion when the increasing number of elderly people unable to provide adequately for themselves found it necessary to contend with sciences which would classify them, arts which would represent them, and a state which was slow to adopt measures of support. The book analyzes illuminating moments in these relations which are displayed variously in narrative form, social policy and cultural attitudes. It considers the centrality of institutions and of the generational divide; it traces the power and powerlessness of age through a range of characters and individuals as distinct from one another as Dickens's inebriated nurse, Sairey Gamp, to the sober Queen Victoria; it studies specific narrative forms for expressing heightened emotions attached to aging and the complexities of representing age in pictorial and statistical “portraits.” The chapters are organized around major literary works set alongside episodes and artifacts, diaries and memoirs, images and inscriptions, that produced (and now illuminate) the construction of old age through Victoria's long reign. The argument demonstrates that if old age became for the Victorians such a conspicuous public topic and problem, it also became an intensely private preoccupation. The social formation of old age created terms, images, and narratives that lone individuals used to fashion the stories of their lives. The book is intent to respect the specificity of aging: not only the wide diversities of circumstance (rich and poor, urban and rural, watched and forgotten, powerful and dispossessed) but also the distinct acts of representation by novelists, painters, journalists, sociologists and diary-keepers.
Cordelia Beattie
- Published in print:
- 2007
- Published Online:
- September 2008
- ISBN:
- 9780199283415
- eISBN:
- 9780191712616
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199283415.003.0007
- Subject:
- History, British and Irish Medieval History
This conclusion reflects on how the power of classification resides as much in language, in dominant cultural ideas that influence and inflect language use, as with individual classifiers. Key ...
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This conclusion reflects on how the power of classification resides as much in language, in dominant cultural ideas that influence and inflect language use, as with individual classifiers. Key factors affecting the cultural construction of categories include dominant religious and legal ideas in particular historical contexts, although the specific intentions of particular texts do affect how categories are deployed. The category ‘single woman’ has been shown to interact with those of ‘maiden’ and ‘widow’, whatever language is used, from the 13th century and into the 17th century. Its analysis pointed out various paths through the labyrinthine world of social classification, illustrating the interconnectedness of medieval culture, the complex relationship between representation and social reality, and the competing and overlapping nature of social categories.Less
This conclusion reflects on how the power of classification resides as much in language, in dominant cultural ideas that influence and inflect language use, as with individual classifiers. Key factors affecting the cultural construction of categories include dominant religious and legal ideas in particular historical contexts, although the specific intentions of particular texts do affect how categories are deployed. The category ‘single woman’ has been shown to interact with those of ‘maiden’ and ‘widow’, whatever language is used, from the 13th century and into the 17th century. Its analysis pointed out various paths through the labyrinthine world of social classification, illustrating the interconnectedness of medieval culture, the complex relationship between representation and social reality, and the competing and overlapping nature of social categories.
Nikolas Rose and Joelle M. Abi-Rached
- Published in print:
- 2013
- Published Online:
- October 2017
- ISBN:
- 9780691149608
- eISBN:
- 9781400846337
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Princeton University Press
- DOI:
- 10.23943/princeton/9780691149608.003.0005
- Subject:
- Neuroscience, Development
This chapter focuses on the question of diagnosis of psychiatric disorders and examines the relationship between neuroscience and psychiatry from this perspective. Despite the penetrating gaze of ...
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This chapter focuses on the question of diagnosis of psychiatric disorders and examines the relationship between neuroscience and psychiatry from this perspective. Despite the penetrating gaze of neuroscience, which has opened up the brain to vision in so many ways, psychiatric classification remains superficial. This neuromolecular vision seems incapable of grounding the clinical work of psychiatry in the way that has become routine in other areas of medicine. Despite the conviction of most practitioners that they deal with conditions that have a corporeal seat in the brain of the afflicted individual, psychiatry has failed to establish the bridge that, from the nineteenth century on, underpinned the epistemology of modern clinical medicine—the capacity to link the troubles of the troubled and troubling individuals who are its subjects with the vital anomalies that underpin them.Less
This chapter focuses on the question of diagnosis of psychiatric disorders and examines the relationship between neuroscience and psychiatry from this perspective. Despite the penetrating gaze of neuroscience, which has opened up the brain to vision in so many ways, psychiatric classification remains superficial. This neuromolecular vision seems incapable of grounding the clinical work of psychiatry in the way that has become routine in other areas of medicine. Despite the conviction of most practitioners that they deal with conditions that have a corporeal seat in the brain of the afflicted individual, psychiatry has failed to establish the bridge that, from the nineteenth century on, underpinned the epistemology of modern clinical medicine—the capacity to link the troubles of the troubled and troubling individuals who are its subjects with the vital anomalies that underpin them.
Joseph Pilsner
- Published in print:
- 2006
- Published Online:
- May 2006
- ISBN:
- 9780199286058
- eISBN:
- 9780191603808
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/0199286051.003.0003
- Subject:
- Religion, Theology
In order to understand the specification of human action, it is helpful to explore the specification of two other kinds of realities: natural corporeal beings and natural motions. For Aquinas, a ...
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In order to understand the specification of human action, it is helpful to explore the specification of two other kinds of realities: natural corporeal beings and natural motions. For Aquinas, a natural corporeal being is any creature having matter as a constituent, such as a plant or animal; a being of this kind receives its species from its form. A natural motion is any naturally occurring change, such as growing, becoming healthier, or going from one place to another. Aquinas says that any such motion receives its species from both its ‘terminus to which’ and its active principle. These two types of specification are significant for this present study not only because they reveal important information about specification, but also because Aquinas will use them as starting points from which to explain the specification of human action.Less
In order to understand the specification of human action, it is helpful to explore the specification of two other kinds of realities: natural corporeal beings and natural motions. For Aquinas, a natural corporeal being is any creature having matter as a constituent, such as a plant or animal; a being of this kind receives its species from its form. A natural motion is any naturally occurring change, such as growing, becoming healthier, or going from one place to another. Aquinas says that any such motion receives its species from both its ‘terminus to which’ and its active principle. These two types of specification are significant for this present study not only because they reveal important information about specification, but also because Aquinas will use them as starting points from which to explain the specification of human action.
D. Huybrechts
- Published in print:
- 2006
- Published Online:
- September 2007
- ISBN:
- 9780199296866
- eISBN:
- 9780191711329
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199296866.003.0012
- Subject:
- Mathematics, Geometry / Topology
This chapter completes the classification of algebraic surfaces from the point of view of their derived categories. Abelian, K3, and elliptic surfaces play a special role. For all other surfaces, the ...
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This chapter completes the classification of algebraic surfaces from the point of view of their derived categories. Abelian, K3, and elliptic surfaces play a special role. For all other surfaces, the derived category determines the isomorphism type. The reduction to minimal surfaces is due to Kawamata, and the case of elliptic surfaces was dealt with by Bridgeland and Maciocia.Less
This chapter completes the classification of algebraic surfaces from the point of view of their derived categories. Abelian, K3, and elliptic surfaces play a special role. For all other surfaces, the derived category determines the isomorphism type. The reduction to minimal surfaces is due to Kawamata, and the case of elliptic surfaces was dealt with by Bridgeland and Maciocia.
David Schlosberg
- Published in print:
- 2002
- Published Online:
- November 2003
- ISBN:
- 9780199256419
- eISBN:
- 9780191600203
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/0199256411.003.0002
- Subject:
- Political Science, Environmental Politics
Attention to the environmental movement does not guarantee a sense of respect for its diversity, so this chapter is dedicated to a study of the limitations inherent in various approaches to the study ...
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Attention to the environmental movement does not guarantee a sense of respect for its diversity, so this chapter is dedicated to a study of the limitations inherent in various approaches to the study of environmentalism(s) in the United States. The argument here is that many examiners are more interested in building explanatory models than in understanding the diversity of environmentalism; hence, many models are built on a foundation of exclusion. The chapter first takes a brief look at the limits of standard histories of the environmental movement. It goes on to critically examine the current state of the literature on the environmental movement by investigating methods of classification of variety, the attempt to forge an environmental vanguard (hegemonic progressivism), and the myriad claims to unlocking the motivations of environmental actors. All of these approaches are described as having a tendency to exclude evidence, examples, or categories that do not fit the proposed model.Less
Attention to the environmental movement does not guarantee a sense of respect for its diversity, so this chapter is dedicated to a study of the limitations inherent in various approaches to the study of environmentalism(s) in the United States. The argument here is that many examiners are more interested in building explanatory models than in understanding the diversity of environmentalism; hence, many models are built on a foundation of exclusion. The chapter first takes a brief look at the limits of standard histories of the environmental movement. It goes on to critically examine the current state of the literature on the environmental movement by investigating methods of classification of variety, the attempt to forge an environmental vanguard (hegemonic progressivism), and the myriad claims to unlocking the motivations of environmental actors. All of these approaches are described as having a tendency to exclude evidence, examples, or categories that do not fit the proposed model.
Sergry V. Krivovichev
- Published in print:
- 2009
- Published Online:
- May 2009
- ISBN:
- 9780199213207
- eISBN:
- 9780191707117
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199213207.003.0001
- Subject:
- Physics, Crystallography
This chapter introduces basic concepts in structural chemistry relevant to the description and interpretation of structures of inorganic oxysalts. It starts from the structural classification of ...
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This chapter introduces basic concepts in structural chemistry relevant to the description and interpretation of structures of inorganic oxysalts. It starts from the structural classification of these materials using bond-valence theory and theory of mixed anionic radicals developed by the Moscow school of crystal chemistry. Typical bond lengths in inorganic oxysalts are tabulated and their behaviour is discussed. Some important parameters of hydrogen bonding are considered.Less
This chapter introduces basic concepts in structural chemistry relevant to the description and interpretation of structures of inorganic oxysalts. It starts from the structural classification of these materials using bond-valence theory and theory of mixed anionic radicals developed by the Moscow school of crystal chemistry. Typical bond lengths in inorganic oxysalts are tabulated and their behaviour is discussed. Some important parameters of hydrogen bonding are considered.
Benjamin Gidron, Stanley N. Katz, and Yeheskel Hasenfeld
- Published in print:
- 2002
- Published Online:
- November 2003
- ISBN:
- 9780195125924
- eISBN:
- 9780199833894
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/0195125924.003.0010
- Subject:
- Political Science, International Relations and Politics
This study of peace and conflict‐resolution organizations (P/CROs) in South Africa, Northern Ireland, and Israel/Palestine faced several methodological challenges: it had to define P/CROs, draw on ...
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This study of peace and conflict‐resolution organizations (P/CROs) in South Africa, Northern Ireland, and Israel/Palestine faced several methodological challenges: it had to define P/CROs, draw on both social movement and third‐sector theory, develop research tools to obtain data about P/CROs valid for regional and international analyses, and simultaneously understand P/CROs as a class with common attributes and appreciate differences amongst them. P/CROs are a new organizational classification, different from “peace movement organizations,” an existing classification. The study analyzed P/CROs from three perspectives: social movement theory, third‐sector theory, and the institutional theory of organizations. Four main findings emerged: (1) foreign funding was central to all P/CROs; (2) charismatic leadership was crucial; (3) almost all P/CROs became more professional and formal over time; and (4) while P/CROs played no direct role in the resolution of their respective conflicts, they made important indirect contributions. In particular, P/CROs helped to “sell” future settlements and agreements to their populations. Issues for further research include the preconditions for the emergence of P/CROs, and the assimilation of social movement and third‐sector research.Less
This study of peace and conflict‐resolution organizations (P/CROs) in South Africa, Northern Ireland, and Israel/Palestine faced several methodological challenges: it had to define P/CROs, draw on both social movement and third‐sector theory, develop research tools to obtain data about P/CROs valid for regional and international analyses, and simultaneously understand P/CROs as a class with common attributes and appreciate differences amongst them. P/CROs are a new organizational classification, different from “peace movement organizations,” an existing classification. The study analyzed P/CROs from three perspectives: social movement theory, third‐sector theory, and the institutional theory of organizations. Four main findings emerged: (1) foreign funding was central to all P/CROs; (2) charismatic leadership was crucial; (3) almost all P/CROs became more professional and formal over time; and (4) while P/CROs played no direct role in the resolution of their respective conflicts, they made important indirect contributions. In particular, P/CROs helped to “sell” future settlements and agreements to their populations. Issues for further research include the preconditions for the emergence of P/CROs, and the assimilation of social movement and third‐sector research.
Marleen Brans and Annie Hondeghem
- Published in print:
- 1999
- Published Online:
- November 2003
- ISBN:
- 9780198294467
- eISBN:
- 9780191600067
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/0198294468.003.0007
- Subject:
- Political Science, Comparative Politics
The Belgian senior civil service is in transition, with external pressures clearly pushing the government firmly towards a reform agenda and improving public confidence in the administrative system, ...
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The Belgian senior civil service is in transition, with external pressures clearly pushing the government firmly towards a reform agenda and improving public confidence in the administrative system, in terms of democracy and accountability and of economy and efficiency. In addition, budgetary pressures have combined with political will to ensure that the operation of the administration complies with the new managerialist paradigm. This chapter gives an overview of the position of senior civil servants in the Belgian federal ministries (the federal civil service). It consists of three main sections: the first describes the coexistence of two opposing civil service models, a formal bureaucratic one and an informal politicized one, and assesses the implications of the clash between these models for the position (job definition, classification, and security; the career ladder; salaries; political appointments; and ministerial cabinets) and role conceptions of top civil servants; the second addresses the issue of representativeness of the senior civil service in terms of education, language, and gender; the third deals with the two major challenges to the Belgian senior civil service (external pressure and internal constraints) and the resulting structural reform agenda.Less
The Belgian senior civil service is in transition, with external pressures clearly pushing the government firmly towards a reform agenda and improving public confidence in the administrative system, in terms of democracy and accountability and of economy and efficiency. In addition, budgetary pressures have combined with political will to ensure that the operation of the administration complies with the new managerialist paradigm. This chapter gives an overview of the position of senior civil servants in the Belgian federal ministries (the federal civil service). It consists of three main sections: the first describes the coexistence of two opposing civil service models, a formal bureaucratic one and an informal politicized one, and assesses the implications of the clash between these models for the position (job definition, classification, and security; the career ladder; salaries; political appointments; and ministerial cabinets) and role conceptions of top civil servants; the second addresses the issue of representativeness of the senior civil service in terms of education, language, and gender; the third deals with the two major challenges to the Belgian senior civil service (external pressure and internal constraints) and the resulting structural reform agenda.
Peter Mair
- Published in print:
- 1998
- Published Online:
- November 2003
- ISBN:
- 9780198295495
- eISBN:
- 9780191599804
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/0198295499.003.0009
- Subject:
- Political Science, Comparative Politics
This is the third of three chapters on political party systems and structures of competition, and presents an overall review. In the first section, Approaches to the Classification of Party Systems: ...
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This is the third of three chapters on political party systems and structures of competition, and presents an overall review. In the first section, Approaches to the Classification of Party Systems: A Review it looks at the principal existing approaches to the classification of party systems, pointing to both their limits and possibilities when applied within comparative analysis. It then goes on in the second section, Party Systems and the Competition for Government, to underline the importance of understanding the structure of competition in any given party system, since in many ways the whole notion of a party system is centred on the assumption that there exists a stable structure of competition. Structures of competition can be seen to be either closed (and predictable) or open (and unpredictable), depending on the patterns of alternation in government, the degree of innovation or persistence in processes of government formation, and the range of parties gaining access to government. The emphasis in the third section, Party Systems and Electoral Outcomes, is on the need to distinguish between processes of electoral change on the one hand, and changes in party systems and the structures of competition on the other, a distinction which also allows the possibility of situations in which electoral change is the consequence rather than the cause of party system change.Less
This is the third of three chapters on political party systems and structures of competition, and presents an overall review. In the first section, Approaches to the Classification of Party Systems: A Review it looks at the principal existing approaches to the classification of party systems, pointing to both their limits and possibilities when applied within comparative analysis. It then goes on in the second section, Party Systems and the Competition for Government, to underline the importance of understanding the structure of competition in any given party system, since in many ways the whole notion of a party system is centred on the assumption that there exists a stable structure of competition. Structures of competition can be seen to be either closed (and predictable) or open (and unpredictable), depending on the patterns of alternation in government, the degree of innovation or persistence in processes of government formation, and the range of parties gaining access to government. The emphasis in the third section, Party Systems and Electoral Outcomes, is on the need to distinguish between processes of electoral change on the one hand, and changes in party systems and the structures of competition on the other, a distinction which also allows the possibility of situations in which electoral change is the consequence rather than the cause of party system change.
Steven B. Wolinetz
- Published in print:
- 2002
- Published Online:
- November 2003
- ISBN:
- 9780199246748
- eISBN:
- 9780191599385
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/0199246742.003.0006
- Subject:
- Political Science, Comparative Politics
There are good reasons for re‐examining existing classifications of parties and seeing if others can be developed. However, reworking categories is a complex process, requiring further research and ...
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There are good reasons for re‐examining existing classifications of parties and seeing if others can be developed. However, reworking categories is a complex process, requiring further research and interaction between theory and data. This chapter is a preliminary effort, and focuses primarily on parties in established liberal democracies. The first half examines the adequacy of existing party categories in light of the literature in sections entitled: Categories and concepts in the comparative literature; Cadre versus mass parties; and Parties of mass integration, catch‐all parties, and beyond’ (to the cartel party). The second half considers ways in which contemporary parties might be compared in sections entitled: New bases for classification? Vote‐seeking, office‐seeking, and policy‐seeking parties; and Patterns of change in Western European parties.Less
There are good reasons for re‐examining existing classifications of parties and seeing if others can be developed. However, reworking categories is a complex process, requiring further research and interaction between theory and data. This chapter is a preliminary effort, and focuses primarily on parties in established liberal democracies. The first half examines the adequacy of existing party categories in light of the literature in sections entitled: Categories and concepts in the comparative literature; Cadre versus mass parties; and Parties of mass integration, catch‐all parties, and beyond’ (to the cartel party). The second half considers ways in which contemporary parties might be compared in sections entitled: New bases for classification? Vote‐seeking, office‐seeking, and policy‐seeking parties; and Patterns of change in Western European parties.
Phil Almond, Michael Muller-Camen, David G. Collings, and Javier Quintanilla
- Published in print:
- 2006
- Published Online:
- September 2007
- ISBN:
- 9780199274635
- eISBN:
- 9780191706530
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199274635.003.0007
- Subject:
- Business and Management, HRM / IR
This chapter analyses the management of pay and performance in the case study companies, against the background of the embedded systems of the USA and the host countries. Both wage classifications ...
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This chapter analyses the management of pay and performance in the case study companies, against the background of the embedded systems of the USA and the host countries. Both wage classifications and the issue of performance management are examined. Patterns of decision-making on both dimensions are found to be generally more centralized than is the case for other areas of HR policy. On the issue of wage classifications, patterns of broadbanding are examined, as well as the means by which US multinationals challenge sectorally-based pay determination in Germany. It then explores the issue of forms of individual and collective performance pay, looking at recent changes in the nature of merit pay, particularly the increasingly competitive nature of its allocation through mechanisms, such as forced distributions. It also reviews the extent to which performance management is used as a tool to ‘cull’ weaker performers, and suggests that the origins of such policies can be related to the societally-specific norm of ‘employment at will’.Less
This chapter analyses the management of pay and performance in the case study companies, against the background of the embedded systems of the USA and the host countries. Both wage classifications and the issue of performance management are examined. Patterns of decision-making on both dimensions are found to be generally more centralized than is the case for other areas of HR policy. On the issue of wage classifications, patterns of broadbanding are examined, as well as the means by which US multinationals challenge sectorally-based pay determination in Germany. It then explores the issue of forms of individual and collective performance pay, looking at recent changes in the nature of merit pay, particularly the increasingly competitive nature of its allocation through mechanisms, such as forced distributions. It also reviews the extent to which performance management is used as a tool to ‘cull’ weaker performers, and suggests that the origins of such policies can be related to the societally-specific norm of ‘employment at will’.
Desmond S. King and Rogers M. Smith
- Published in print:
- 2011
- Published Online:
- October 2017
- ISBN:
- 9780691142630
- eISBN:
- 9781400839766
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Princeton University Press
- DOI:
- 10.23943/princeton/9780691142630.003.0007
- Subject:
- Political Science, Public Policy
This chapter considers two of the most important foundational systems in American life: public education, and governmental classification of the population in terms of race and ethnicity. Education ...
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This chapter considers two of the most important foundational systems in American life: public education, and governmental classification of the population in terms of race and ethnicity. Education is recognized as fundamental to developing capacities for responsible citizenship, marketable skills, and resources for personal fulfillment in modern America. Governmental racial and ethnic classifications not only determine such key issues as congressional district size, federal grants to states, and affirmative action, they help both to express and to constitute the senses of identity of many Americans. Neither the structure of modern American schooling nor its systems of racial classifications can be grasped without appreciating the roles the modern racial alliances play in the politics that have shaped current policies and practices on those issues.Less
This chapter considers two of the most important foundational systems in American life: public education, and governmental classification of the population in terms of race and ethnicity. Education is recognized as fundamental to developing capacities for responsible citizenship, marketable skills, and resources for personal fulfillment in modern America. Governmental racial and ethnic classifications not only determine such key issues as congressional district size, federal grants to states, and affirmative action, they help both to express and to constitute the senses of identity of many Americans. Neither the structure of modern American schooling nor its systems of racial classifications can be grasped without appreciating the roles the modern racial alliances play in the politics that have shaped current policies and practices on those issues.
David W. DeLong
- Published in print:
- 2004
- Published Online:
- September 2007
- ISBN:
- 9780195170979
- eISBN:
- 9780199789719
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195170979.003.0006
- Subject:
- Business and Management, Knowledge Management
This chapter begins with a detailed explanation of the confusion surrounding different knowledge types. It includes a practical description using one form of knowledge classification, which includes ...
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This chapter begins with a detailed explanation of the confusion surrounding different knowledge types. It includes a practical description using one form of knowledge classification, which includes explicit knowledge and tacit knowledge, or know-how. But an argument is made that an overlooked and more useful hybrid concept is the notion of implicit knowledge. The three most common ways that explicit knowledge is likely to be transferred and retained are: documentation, interviews and debriefings, and training. Each section includes detailed implications for action when applying these solutions for knowledge transfer and knowledge retention.Less
This chapter begins with a detailed explanation of the confusion surrounding different knowledge types. It includes a practical description using one form of knowledge classification, which includes explicit knowledge and tacit knowledge, or know-how. But an argument is made that an overlooked and more useful hybrid concept is the notion of implicit knowledge. The three most common ways that explicit knowledge is likely to be transferred and retained are: documentation, interviews and debriefings, and training. Each section includes detailed implications for action when applying these solutions for knowledge transfer and knowledge retention.
Murray Campbell, Clive Greated, and Arnold Myers
- Published in print:
- 2004
- Published Online:
- May 2008
- ISBN:
- 9780198165040
- eISBN:
- 9780191713675
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198165040.003.0002
- Subject:
- Music, History, Western
This chapter reviews the ways in which musical instruments create their characteristic sounds, focusing on those factors which are common to instruments from a particular family. The Hornbostel-Sachs ...
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This chapter reviews the ways in which musical instruments create their characteristic sounds, focusing on those factors which are common to instruments from a particular family. The Hornbostel-Sachs classification scheme — extended to include the electrophone class — is explained and related to the more common musical classification into families of strings, woodwinds, brass, and percussion. Standing wave patterns in the air columns of different types of wind instrument are described, and the methods of sound generation in flutes, single and double reed woodwinds, and brass instruments are reviewed. The standing wave patterns created on the vibrating strings of bowed and plucked stringed instruments are described. Membranophones and idiophones are identified with the percussion family, and the differences between pitched and unpitched percussion instruments are explained. Finally, the class of electrophones is reviewed, distinguishing between electroacoustic, electromechanical, and electronic instruments.Less
This chapter reviews the ways in which musical instruments create their characteristic sounds, focusing on those factors which are common to instruments from a particular family. The Hornbostel-Sachs classification scheme — extended to include the electrophone class — is explained and related to the more common musical classification into families of strings, woodwinds, brass, and percussion. Standing wave patterns in the air columns of different types of wind instrument are described, and the methods of sound generation in flutes, single and double reed woodwinds, and brass instruments are reviewed. The standing wave patterns created on the vibrating strings of bowed and plucked stringed instruments are described. Membranophones and idiophones are identified with the percussion family, and the differences between pitched and unpitched percussion instruments are explained. Finally, the class of electrophones is reviewed, distinguishing between electroacoustic, electromechanical, and electronic instruments.
Anna Sun
- Published in print:
- 2013
- Published Online:
- October 2017
- ISBN:
- 9780691155579
- eISBN:
- 9781400846085
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Princeton University Press
- DOI:
- 10.23943/princeton/9780691155579.003.0006
- Subject:
- Religion, Hinduism
This chapter discusses the long-standing problem of identifying Confucians in China (and East Asia in general) through social science research methods—a problem deeply rooted in the ...
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This chapter discusses the long-standing problem of identifying Confucians in China (and East Asia in general) through social science research methods—a problem deeply rooted in the nineteenth-century conceptualization of Confucianism and the overall classification of Chinese religions. It investigates different types of empirical data—national censuses and surveys—from Mainland China, as well as from Taiwan, Japan, and South Korea, in order to answer two questions. First is about whether “Confucianism” is a category in religious classifications in these East Asian countries and regions; the second asks about how many people are counted as “Confucians” in China.Less
This chapter discusses the long-standing problem of identifying Confucians in China (and East Asia in general) through social science research methods—a problem deeply rooted in the nineteenth-century conceptualization of Confucianism and the overall classification of Chinese religions. It investigates different types of empirical data—national censuses and surveys—from Mainland China, as well as from Taiwan, Japan, and South Korea, in order to answer two questions. First is about whether “Confucianism” is a category in religious classifications in these East Asian countries and regions; the second asks about how many people are counted as “Confucians” in China.
Kenneth Prewitt
- Published in print:
- 2013
- Published Online:
- October 2017
- ISBN:
- 9780691157030
- eISBN:
- 9781400846795
- Item type:
- book
- Publisher:
- Princeton University Press
- DOI:
- 10.23943/princeton/9780691157030.001.0001
- Subject:
- Political Science, American Politics
America is preoccupied with race statistics—perhaps more than any other nation. Do these statistics illuminate social reality and produce coherent social policy, or cloud that reality and confuse ...
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America is preoccupied with race statistics—perhaps more than any other nation. Do these statistics illuminate social reality and produce coherent social policy, or cloud that reality and confuse social policy? Does America still have a color line? Who is on which side? Does it have a different “race” line—the nativity line—separating the native born from the foreign born? You might expect to answer these and similar questions with the government's “statistical races,” but this book observes that this is not likely and shows why the way we count by race is flawed. The book calls for radical change. The nation needs to move beyond a race classification whose origins are in discredited eighteenth-century race-is-biology science, a classification that once defined Japanese and Chinese as separate races, but now combines them as a statistical “Asian race.” One that once tried to divide the “white race” into “good whites” and “bad whites,” and that today cannot distinguish descendants of Africans brought in chains 400 years ago from children of Ethiopian parents who eagerly immigrated 20 years ago. Contrary to common sense, the classification says there are only two ethnicities in America—Hispanics and non-Hispanics. But if the old classification is cast aside, is there something better? This book clearly lays out the steps that can take the nation from where it is to where it needs to be. It is not an overnight task—particularly the explosive step of dropping today's race question from the census—but the book argues persuasively that radical change is technically and politically achievable, and morally necessary.Less
America is preoccupied with race statistics—perhaps more than any other nation. Do these statistics illuminate social reality and produce coherent social policy, or cloud that reality and confuse social policy? Does America still have a color line? Who is on which side? Does it have a different “race” line—the nativity line—separating the native born from the foreign born? You might expect to answer these and similar questions with the government's “statistical races,” but this book observes that this is not likely and shows why the way we count by race is flawed. The book calls for radical change. The nation needs to move beyond a race classification whose origins are in discredited eighteenth-century race-is-biology science, a classification that once defined Japanese and Chinese as separate races, but now combines them as a statistical “Asian race.” One that once tried to divide the “white race” into “good whites” and “bad whites,” and that today cannot distinguish descendants of Africans brought in chains 400 years ago from children of Ethiopian parents who eagerly immigrated 20 years ago. Contrary to common sense, the classification says there are only two ethnicities in America—Hispanics and non-Hispanics. But if the old classification is cast aside, is there something better? This book clearly lays out the steps that can take the nation from where it is to where it needs to be. It is not an overnight task—particularly the explosive step of dropping today's race question from the census—but the book argues persuasively that radical change is technically and politically achievable, and morally necessary.
