J. Mark Elwood
- Published in print:
- 2007
- Published Online:
- September 2009
- ISBN:
- 9780198529552
- eISBN:
- 9780191723865
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198529552.003.09
- Subject:
- Public Health and Epidemiology, Public Health, Epidemiology
This chapter presents a scheme for assessing causal relationships in human health. The approach is that the diagnosis of causation depends on the consideration of both causal and non-causal ...
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This chapter presents a scheme for assessing causal relationships in human health. The approach is that the diagnosis of causation depends on the consideration of both causal and non-causal explanations for the association seen. A reasoned judgement must be reached as to the likelihood of the association seen being produced by causality rather than by any other mechanism. The conclusion as to whether a particular association reflects causation is not a simple yes or no, but requires reasoned and probabilistic judgements.Less
This chapter presents a scheme for assessing causal relationships in human health. The approach is that the diagnosis of causation depends on the consideration of both causal and non-causal explanations for the association seen. A reasoned judgement must be reached as to the likelihood of the association seen being produced by causality rather than by any other mechanism. The conclusion as to whether a particular association reflects causation is not a simple yes or no, but requires reasoned and probabilistic judgements.
David Premack and Ann James Premack
- Published in print:
- 1996
- Published Online:
- March 2012
- ISBN:
- 9780198524021
- eISBN:
- 9780191689093
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198524021.003.0021
- Subject:
- Psychology, Cognitive Psychology
The two conflicting traditions of causality in psychology are both represented in the book: the arbitrary tradition of Hume in which causality is learned, and the natural tradition of Michotte, in ...
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The two conflicting traditions of causality in psychology are both represented in the book: the arbitrary tradition of Hume in which causality is learned, and the natural tradition of Michotte, in which causality is directly perceived. Delay evidently affects arbitrary and natural causality differently. Although not affecting judgement in the natural case, in an arbitrary case when humans pressed a lever to produce a light, delay weakened both instrumental responding and judgement of causal relationship. While the judgement of natural causal relations remains untouched, delay weakens the judgements of arbitrary causal relations.Less
The two conflicting traditions of causality in psychology are both represented in the book: the arbitrary tradition of Hume in which causality is learned, and the natural tradition of Michotte, in which causality is directly perceived. Delay evidently affects arbitrary and natural causality differently. Although not affecting judgement in the natural case, in an arbitrary case when humans pressed a lever to produce a light, delay weakened both instrumental responding and judgement of causal relationship. While the judgement of natural causal relations remains untouched, delay weakens the judgements of arbitrary causal relations.
Stephen Everson
- Published in print:
- 1999
- Published Online:
- November 2003
- ISBN:
- 9780198238638
- eISBN:
- 9780191597374
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/0198238630.003.0002
- Subject:
- Philosophy, Ancient Philosophy
Everson discusses the five senses and their proper objects; e.g. sound for hearing, colour for sight. The senses, Everson argues, are essentially related to their proper objects because they are ...
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Everson discusses the five senses and their proper objects; e.g. sound for hearing, colour for sight. The senses, Everson argues, are essentially related to their proper objects because they are essentially such as to be affected by them. There is thus an intrinsic (kath’hauto) relationship between a proper object and its proper sense, and this, Everson argues, is causal, rather than conceptual or logical. This being so, perception requires a scientific investigation.Less
Everson discusses the five senses and their proper objects; e.g. sound for hearing, colour for sight. The senses, Everson argues, are essentially related to their proper objects because they are essentially such as to be affected by them. There is thus an intrinsic (kath’hauto) relationship between a proper object and its proper sense, and this, Everson argues, is causal, rather than conceptual or logical. This being so, perception requires a scientific investigation.
Philip Pettit
- Published in print:
- 1996
- Published Online:
- March 2012
- ISBN:
- 9780198524021
- eISBN:
- 9780191689093
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198524021.003.0013
- Subject:
- Psychology, Cognitive Psychology
This chapter analyses various types of causal relationships and argues for the legitimacy of causal claims at higher levels. First, it formulates the physicalist doctrine and discusses the ...
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This chapter analyses various types of causal relationships and argues for the legitimacy of causal claims at higher levels. First, it formulates the physicalist doctrine and discusses the architecture of instrumental control at different levels which this physicalism allows. It also examines how far this architecture of control is mirrored in the architecture of causality: how far causality, like control, can be found at higher levels.Less
This chapter analyses various types of causal relationships and argues for the legitimacy of causal claims at higher levels. First, it formulates the physicalist doctrine and discusses the architecture of instrumental control at different levels which this physicalism allows. It also examines how far this architecture of control is mirrored in the architecture of causality: how far causality, like control, can be found at higher levels.
Daniel J. Povinelli and James E. Reaux
- Published in print:
- 2003
- Published Online:
- April 2010
- ISBN:
- 9780198572190
- eISBN:
- 9780191584978
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198572190.003.0006
- Subject:
- Psychology, Developmental Psychology, Evolutionary Psychology
This chapter explores whether chimpanzees might exhibit a better a priori understanding of the causal aspects of tool use in a case where they only needed to attend to the interaction between the ...
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This chapter explores whether chimpanzees might exhibit a better a priori understanding of the causal aspects of tool use in a case where they only needed to attend to the interaction between the tool and the goal object, as opposed to simultaneously keeping track of the substrate upon which the tool and goal object were operating. By testing chimpanzees in this manner, researchers sought to determine which aspects of the relation between pulling on a rake and the reward's subsequent movement they understood. The results presented in the chapter both extend and temper those reported in Chapters 4 and 5 in several important ways. First, the difficulty apes experienced in learning to select the properly oriented tool (correct) over the obviously improperly oriented one (incorrect), suggests that the results of previous tests were not obtained solely because they required the chimpanzees to attend to two causal relationships simultaneously. In the tests presented in this chapter, success was possible by focusing exclusively on the connection between the manipulation of a tool and the resulting movement of the reward.Less
This chapter explores whether chimpanzees might exhibit a better a priori understanding of the causal aspects of tool use in a case where they only needed to attend to the interaction between the tool and the goal object, as opposed to simultaneously keeping track of the substrate upon which the tool and goal object were operating. By testing chimpanzees in this manner, researchers sought to determine which aspects of the relation between pulling on a rake and the reward's subsequent movement they understood. The results presented in the chapter both extend and temper those reported in Chapters 4 and 5 in several important ways. First, the difficulty apes experienced in learning to select the properly oriented tool (correct) over the obviously improperly oriented one (incorrect), suggests that the results of previous tests were not obtained solely because they required the chimpanzees to attend to two causal relationships simultaneously. In the tests presented in this chapter, success was possible by focusing exclusively on the connection between the manipulation of a tool and the resulting movement of the reward.
Carolyn Price
- Published in print:
- 2001
- Published Online:
- October 2011
- ISBN:
- 9780199242009
- eISBN:
- 9780191696992
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199242009.003.0008
- Subject:
- Philosophy, Philosophy of Mind, Philosophy of Science
This chapter focuses on the capacities of relatively unsophisticated organisms. It discusses the long-standing philosophical debate concerning the relationship between the capacity to represent ...
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This chapter focuses on the capacities of relatively unsophisticated organisms. It discusses the long-standing philosophical debate concerning the relationship between the capacity to represent objects and the capacity to represent places. It argues that these two capacities are interdependent and neither can exist without the other. It also comments on the controversy concerning the nature of the causal relationship between the perceiver and the object that he perceives.Less
This chapter focuses on the capacities of relatively unsophisticated organisms. It discusses the long-standing philosophical debate concerning the relationship between the capacity to represent objects and the capacity to represent places. It argues that these two capacities are interdependent and neither can exist without the other. It also comments on the controversy concerning the nature of the causal relationship between the perceiver and the object that he perceives.
J. Mark Elwood
- Published in print:
- 2007
- Published Online:
- September 2009
- ISBN:
- 9780198529552
- eISBN:
- 9780191723865
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198529552.003.15
- Subject:
- Public Health and Epidemiology, Public Health, Epidemiology
This chapter presents an example of the application of the scheme for critical appraisal: large population-based case-control study entitled ‘Risk of breast cancer in relation to lifetime alcohol ...
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This chapter presents an example of the application of the scheme for critical appraisal: large population-based case-control study entitled ‘Risk of breast cancer in relation to lifetime alcohol consumption’, published in the Journal of the National Cancer Institute in 1995. This large case-control study has shown a regular positive association between recorded alcohol intake and breast cancer risk. The results are generally consistent with the results of other observational studies, most of which, however, would be open to the same limitations.Less
This chapter presents an example of the application of the scheme for critical appraisal: large population-based case-control study entitled ‘Risk of breast cancer in relation to lifetime alcohol consumption’, published in the Journal of the National Cancer Institute in 1995. This large case-control study has shown a regular positive association between recorded alcohol intake and breast cancer risk. The results are generally consistent with the results of other observational studies, most of which, however, would be open to the same limitations.
J. Mark Elwood
- Published in print:
- 2007
- Published Online:
- September 2009
- ISBN:
- 9780198529552
- eISBN:
- 9780191723865
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198529552.003.13
- Subject:
- Public Health and Epidemiology, Public Health, Epidemiology
This chapter presents an example of the application of the scheme for critical appraisal: a retrospective cohort study entitled ‘Cancer mortality in workers exposed to chlorophenoxy herbicides and ...
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This chapter presents an example of the application of the scheme for critical appraisal: a retrospective cohort study entitled ‘Cancer mortality in workers exposed to chlorophenoxy herbicides and chlorophenols’, published in The Lancet in 1991. Assessed on its own, this study has produced results which are consistent with causality, but are not convincing, as other explanations cannot be excluded. Taken with the background of several other studies which also suggest an increase in this rare condition with this particular exposure, the overall evidence becomes much more persuasive.Less
This chapter presents an example of the application of the scheme for critical appraisal: a retrospective cohort study entitled ‘Cancer mortality in workers exposed to chlorophenoxy herbicides and chlorophenols’, published in The Lancet in 1991. Assessed on its own, this study has produced results which are consistent with causality, but are not convincing, as other explanations cannot be excluded. Taken with the background of several other studies which also suggest an increase in this rare condition with this particular exposure, the overall evidence becomes much more persuasive.
J. Mark Elwood
- Published in print:
- 2007
- Published Online:
- September 2009
- ISBN:
- 9780198529552
- eISBN:
- 9780191723865
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198529552.003.12
- Subject:
- Public Health and Epidemiology, Public Health, Epidemiology
This chapter presents an example of the application of the scheme for critical appraisal: a prospective cohort study entitled ‘Long-term relation between breastfeeding and development of atopy and ...
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This chapter presents an example of the application of the scheme for critical appraisal: a prospective cohort study entitled ‘Long-term relation between breastfeeding and development of atopy and asthma in children and young adults: a longitudinal study’, published in The Lancet, in 2002. Working through this, critical appraisal shows that this is a substantial and carefully performed prospective cohort study, in which the information on outcome, asthma at the age of nine years, is very clear, and the information on breastfeeding is almost equally clear.Less
This chapter presents an example of the application of the scheme for critical appraisal: a prospective cohort study entitled ‘Long-term relation between breastfeeding and development of atopy and asthma in children and young adults: a longitudinal study’, published in The Lancet, in 2002. Working through this, critical appraisal shows that this is a substantial and carefully performed prospective cohort study, in which the information on outcome, asthma at the age of nine years, is very clear, and the information on breastfeeding is almost equally clear.
J. Mark Elwood
- Published in print:
- 2007
- Published Online:
- September 2009
- ISBN:
- 9780198529552
- eISBN:
- 9780191723865
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198529552.003.14
- Subject:
- Public Health and Epidemiology, Public Health, Epidemiology
This chapter presents an example of the application of the scheme for critical appraisal: a small matched case-control study entitled ‘Increased risk of endometrial carcinoma among users of ...
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This chapter presents an example of the application of the scheme for critical appraisal: a small matched case-control study entitled ‘Increased risk of endometrial carcinoma among users of conjugated estrogens’, published in the New England Journal of Medicine in 1975. The study is the first publication showing an important relationship between a disease and a widely used drug. It was chosen because it is now of historical importance, and is a good example of an individually matched study with several issues of interpretation. In addition, it shows an interesting way of assessing confounding, which is valid although not usually used in current studies.Less
This chapter presents an example of the application of the scheme for critical appraisal: a small matched case-control study entitled ‘Increased risk of endometrial carcinoma among users of conjugated estrogens’, published in the New England Journal of Medicine in 1975. The study is the first publication showing an important relationship between a disease and a widely used drug. It was chosen because it is now of historical importance, and is a good example of an individually matched study with several issues of interpretation. In addition, it shows an interesting way of assessing confounding, which is valid although not usually used in current studies.
J. D. Trout
- Published in print:
- 1998
- Published Online:
- February 2006
- ISBN:
- 9780195107661
- eISBN:
- 9780199786152
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/0195107667.003.0006
- Subject:
- Philosophy, Metaphysics/Epistemology
Many of the background theories in the social sciences and psychology are unreliable, and so theoretical improvement often requires the experimental strain of statistical predictions. Significance ...
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Many of the background theories in the social sciences and psychology are unreliable, and so theoretical improvement often requires the experimental strain of statistical predictions. Significance testing is the primary method for establishing causal relationships in psychology, and proposes conditions that are diagnostic of the reality of a theoretical entity in psychology. The fulfillment of these conditions reflect a principle of robustness which states that real psychological effects are: (1) reproducible by similar methods, (2) detectable by diverse means, and (3) able to survive theoretical integration. The principle of robustness explains why spurious significant findings perish under the strain of persistent tests of their robustness. The resulting vindication of significance testing confers on the world a role in determining the rationality of a method, and provides a realist explanation for the fast progress of “hard” areas of psychology.Less
Many of the background theories in the social sciences and psychology are unreliable, and so theoretical improvement often requires the experimental strain of statistical predictions. Significance testing is the primary method for establishing causal relationships in psychology, and proposes conditions that are diagnostic of the reality of a theoretical entity in psychology. The fulfillment of these conditions reflect a principle of robustness which states that real psychological effects are: (1) reproducible by similar methods, (2) detectable by diverse means, and (3) able to survive theoretical integration. The principle of robustness explains why spurious significant findings perish under the strain of persistent tests of their robustness. The resulting vindication of significance testing confers on the world a role in determining the rationality of a method, and provides a realist explanation for the fast progress of “hard” areas of psychology.
Peter V. Rabins
- Published in print:
- 2013
- Published Online:
- November 2015
- ISBN:
- 9780231164726
- eISBN:
- 9780231535458
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Columbia University Press
- DOI:
- 10.7312/columbia/9780231164726.003.0003
- Subject:
- Philosophy, Philosophy of Science
This chapter discusses causality as a categorical concept. Computers are based on the idea that knowledge can be coded and stored in a binary or dichotomous fashion such that each information point ...
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This chapter discusses causality as a categorical concept. Computers are based on the idea that knowledge can be coded and stored in a binary or dichotomous fashion such that each information point consists of a question with only two possible answers. In numeric representation the two possibilities are usually “zero” or “one,” while in linguistic representation the two choices are usually stated as “no” or “yes.” The computer represents these two states in an electronic circuit in which a switch is either open or closed. Because the two possible states of the binary approach are mutually exclusive and absolute, this approach is referred to as categorical, binary, digital, or dichotomous. Categorical logic is the usual model of reasoning used to conceptualize causal relationships. The simplicity of the categorical model can help enumerate the properties needed to demonstrate causality. This chapter considers plausibility and simplicity as two criteria of cause as well as the notion that the binary model of causality is too simple.Less
This chapter discusses causality as a categorical concept. Computers are based on the idea that knowledge can be coded and stored in a binary or dichotomous fashion such that each information point consists of a question with only two possible answers. In numeric representation the two possibilities are usually “zero” or “one,” while in linguistic representation the two choices are usually stated as “no” or “yes.” The computer represents these two states in an electronic circuit in which a switch is either open or closed. Because the two possible states of the binary approach are mutually exclusive and absolute, this approach is referred to as categorical, binary, digital, or dichotomous. Categorical logic is the usual model of reasoning used to conceptualize causal relationships. The simplicity of the categorical model can help enumerate the properties needed to demonstrate causality. This chapter considers plausibility and simplicity as two criteria of cause as well as the notion that the binary model of causality is too simple.
J. Mark Elwood
- Published in print:
- 2007
- Published Online:
- September 2009
- ISBN:
- 9780198529552
- eISBN:
- 9780191723865
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198529552.003.10
- Subject:
- Public Health and Epidemiology, Public Health, Epidemiology
This chapter presents an example of the application of the scheme for critical appraisal: a randomized clinical trial entitled ‘Chloramphenicol treatment for acute infective conjunctivitis in ...
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This chapter presents an example of the application of the scheme for critical appraisal: a randomized clinical trial entitled ‘Chloramphenicol treatment for acute infective conjunctivitis in children in primary care: a randomized double-blind placebo-controlled trial’, published in The Lancet in 2005. This study illustrates both the strengths and weaknesses of randomized trials. The strengths are that with reasonable confidence, confounding and observation bias can be excluded as explanations for the results seen. The main weakness is that despite the enormous effort involved, the study is still limited in terms of size, and the main results are close to the conventional 5% cut-off for statistical significance.Less
This chapter presents an example of the application of the scheme for critical appraisal: a randomized clinical trial entitled ‘Chloramphenicol treatment for acute infective conjunctivitis in children in primary care: a randomized double-blind placebo-controlled trial’, published in The Lancet in 2005. This study illustrates both the strengths and weaknesses of randomized trials. The strengths are that with reasonable confidence, confounding and observation bias can be excluded as explanations for the results seen. The main weakness is that despite the enormous effort involved, the study is still limited in terms of size, and the main results are close to the conventional 5% cut-off for statistical significance.
David A. Savitz and Gregory A. Wellenius
- Published in print:
- 2016
- Published Online:
- November 2016
- ISBN:
- 9780190243777
- eISBN:
- 9780190243807
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780190243777.003.0002
- Subject:
- Public Health and Epidemiology, Public Health, Epidemiology
Assessing the contribution of epidemiologic studies starts with an appreciation of the goal. In addition to a purely descriptive goal of characterizing disease in the population, we are often ...
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Assessing the contribution of epidemiologic studies starts with an appreciation of the goal. In addition to a purely descriptive goal of characterizing disease in the population, we are often interested in quantifying the causal relationship between exposure and disease. Study methods and results are scrutinized to assess the extent to which that goal has been attained. The causal question can be somewhat challenging to define clearly but should involve some hypothetically modifiable influence on disease to yield practically useful information. While epidemiology can contribute to the ultimate goals of improving health or guiding policy, this cannot be defined as the goal for epidemiologic research since it can only do so in combination with other lines of scientific evidence, ultimately dependent on practical considerations as well.Less
Assessing the contribution of epidemiologic studies starts with an appreciation of the goal. In addition to a purely descriptive goal of characterizing disease in the population, we are often interested in quantifying the causal relationship between exposure and disease. Study methods and results are scrutinized to assess the extent to which that goal has been attained. The causal question can be somewhat challenging to define clearly but should involve some hypothetically modifiable influence on disease to yield practically useful information. While epidemiology can contribute to the ultimate goals of improving health or guiding policy, this cannot be defined as the goal for epidemiologic research since it can only do so in combination with other lines of scientific evidence, ultimately dependent on practical considerations as well.
Katherine Fierlbeck
- Published in print:
- 2008
- Published Online:
- July 2012
- ISBN:
- 9780719049958
- eISBN:
- 9781781701416
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Manchester University Press
- DOI:
- 10.7228/manchester/9780719049958.003.0007
- Subject:
- Political Science, Democratization
This chapter investigates the claim that a robust democracy depends upon the ability to ‘strengthen civil society’. It describes how and why civil society has come to be used so widely and with such ...
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This chapter investigates the claim that a robust democracy depends upon the ability to ‘strengthen civil society’. It describes how and why civil society has come to be used so widely and with such enthusiastic hope. A number of conceptual objections to the term are also addressed. The concept of civil society is ‘indispensable’ because it promises ‘a theoretical framework that can anchor what is in the end a common discussion across boundaries’. The idea of civil society is unrepentantly grounded within the history of liberal thought. The proponents of ‘civil society’ must be able to reply to three objections: the definition is too ambiguous; causal relationships are circular or misidentified; and falsifiability is impossible. The concept of ‘civil society’ has been overused and overrated, and remains analytically insubstantial. ‘Civil society’ is a shorthand way of expressing the principle of limited government.Less
This chapter investigates the claim that a robust democracy depends upon the ability to ‘strengthen civil society’. It describes how and why civil society has come to be used so widely and with such enthusiastic hope. A number of conceptual objections to the term are also addressed. The concept of civil society is ‘indispensable’ because it promises ‘a theoretical framework that can anchor what is in the end a common discussion across boundaries’. The idea of civil society is unrepentantly grounded within the history of liberal thought. The proponents of ‘civil society’ must be able to reply to three objections: the definition is too ambiguous; causal relationships are circular or misidentified; and falsifiability is impossible. The concept of ‘civil society’ has been overused and overrated, and remains analytically insubstantial. ‘Civil society’ is a shorthand way of expressing the principle of limited government.
Peter V. Rabins
- Published in print:
- 2013
- Published Online:
- November 2015
- ISBN:
- 9780231164726
- eISBN:
- 9780231535458
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Columbia University Press
- DOI:
- 10.7312/columbia/9780231164726.003.0012
- Subject:
- Philosophy, Philosophy of Science
This book offers a conceptual framework for analyzing daunting questions of causality, such as why the Fukushima and Three Mile Island nuclear disasters occurred or why a person becomes depressed. ...
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This book offers a conceptual framework for analyzing daunting questions of causality, such as why the Fukushima and Three Mile Island nuclear disasters occurred or why a person becomes depressed. How can we include factors as disparate as a valve left open, the inherent complexity of multisystem manufacturing plants, and the inability of humans to anticipate all of the potential errors and adverse events in operating such a complex system? How can genetics, early life experience, and current events be understood as causing depression in one person but not in another with similar experiences and background? This book proposes a three-facet model of causality and applies it to a variety of questions in science, medicine, economics, and other fields. Facet 1 consists of three conceptual models of causal logic, Facet 2 describes four levels of analysis, and Facet 3 describes the three logics by which knowledge of cause is gained. The book is based on the premise that causes exist and that causal relationships can be discovered and confirmed.Less
This book offers a conceptual framework for analyzing daunting questions of causality, such as why the Fukushima and Three Mile Island nuclear disasters occurred or why a person becomes depressed. How can we include factors as disparate as a valve left open, the inherent complexity of multisystem manufacturing plants, and the inability of humans to anticipate all of the potential errors and adverse events in operating such a complex system? How can genetics, early life experience, and current events be understood as causing depression in one person but not in another with similar experiences and background? This book proposes a three-facet model of causality and applies it to a variety of questions in science, medicine, economics, and other fields. Facet 1 consists of three conceptual models of causal logic, Facet 2 describes four levels of analysis, and Facet 3 describes the three logics by which knowledge of cause is gained. The book is based on the premise that causes exist and that causal relationships can be discovered and confirmed.
Alvaro Moreno and Kepa Ruiz-Mirazo
- Published in print:
- 2011
- Published Online:
- August 2013
- ISBN:
- 9780262201742
- eISBN:
- 9780262295246
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- The MIT Press
- DOI:
- 10.7551/mitpress/9780262201742.003.0007
- Subject:
- Philosophy, Philosophy of Science
This chapter discusses the kind of organization that is required to support Darwinian evolution, with particular interest in the type of material mechanisms and causal relationships underlying that ...
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This chapter discusses the kind of organization that is required to support Darwinian evolution, with particular interest in the type of material mechanisms and causal relationships underlying that organization, as well as the possible precursor forms of organization which led to it. It argues that the causal structure of cellular organization, as displayed by current living beings, comprises a very specific type of causal action, which is based on a strong dynamic decoupling and should be regarded as informational. Finally, the chapter explains why this form of causation is precisely what allows the establishment of a link between two different spheres or levels in the biological domain—the level of individual, autonomous systems or organisms; and the level of historical, collective processes—which is crucial to understanding proper Darwinian evolution, that is, an evolutionary process with true open-ended potential.Less
This chapter discusses the kind of organization that is required to support Darwinian evolution, with particular interest in the type of material mechanisms and causal relationships underlying that organization, as well as the possible precursor forms of organization which led to it. It argues that the causal structure of cellular organization, as displayed by current living beings, comprises a very specific type of causal action, which is based on a strong dynamic decoupling and should be regarded as informational. Finally, the chapter explains why this form of causation is precisely what allows the establishment of a link between two different spheres or levels in the biological domain—the level of individual, autonomous systems or organisms; and the level of historical, collective processes—which is crucial to understanding proper Darwinian evolution, that is, an evolutionary process with true open-ended potential.
Wolfgang Lutz and Vegard Skirbekk
- Published in print:
- 2014
- Published Online:
- October 2014
- ISBN:
- 9780198703167
- eISBN:
- 9780191772467
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198703167.003.0002
- Subject:
- Economics and Finance, Public and Welfare
Chapter 2 makes the case for systematically adding education to age and sex as a third standard demographic dimension. It directly addresses the question of whether the pervasive association of ...
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Chapter 2 makes the case for systematically adding education to age and sex as a third standard demographic dimension. It directly addresses the question of whether the pervasive association of education with demographic outcomes reflects a causal relationship. Based on the notion of functional causality, the chapter reviews theoretical and empirical approaches for assessing this question according to three criteria. It also explores possible alternative explanations such as reverse causality and self-selection, concluding that a functional causal relationship between education and health- and fertility-related outcomes is supported by the evidence. The chapter then describes the book’s expert argument-based approach for defining assumptions for population projections and compares this approach with how European national statistical offices now make and use their assumptions for population projections. Against this background the approach chosen for this study combines a structured substantive inquiry among hundreds of international experts with formal statistical models.Less
Chapter 2 makes the case for systematically adding education to age and sex as a third standard demographic dimension. It directly addresses the question of whether the pervasive association of education with demographic outcomes reflects a causal relationship. Based on the notion of functional causality, the chapter reviews theoretical and empirical approaches for assessing this question according to three criteria. It also explores possible alternative explanations such as reverse causality and self-selection, concluding that a functional causal relationship between education and health- and fertility-related outcomes is supported by the evidence. The chapter then describes the book’s expert argument-based approach for defining assumptions for population projections and compares this approach with how European national statistical offices now make and use their assumptions for population projections. Against this background the approach chosen for this study combines a structured substantive inquiry among hundreds of international experts with formal statistical models.
Russell Powell and Steve Clarke
- Published in print:
- 2013
- Published Online:
- May 2013
- ISBN:
- 9780199640911
- eISBN:
- 9780191753077
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199640911.003.0001
- Subject:
- Religion, Religious Studies, Religion and Society
This chapter examines the causal relationship between religion and tolerance. Is religion a cause of tolerance, is it a cause of intolerance, or do some aspects of religion cause tolerance while ...
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This chapter examines the causal relationship between religion and tolerance. Is religion a cause of tolerance, is it a cause of intolerance, or do some aspects of religion cause tolerance while others cause intolerance? The chapter begins by looking briefly at the concept of tolerance, and at the historical emergence of the political ideal of religious tolerance. It then examines work in psychology where the causal relationship between religion and tolerance has long been a focal point of research efforts. It concludes by briefly discussing emerging work in the anthropology of religion that is relevant to the issue of religious tolerance.Less
This chapter examines the causal relationship between religion and tolerance. Is religion a cause of tolerance, is it a cause of intolerance, or do some aspects of religion cause tolerance while others cause intolerance? The chapter begins by looking briefly at the concept of tolerance, and at the historical emergence of the political ideal of religious tolerance. It then examines work in psychology where the causal relationship between religion and tolerance has long been a focal point of research efforts. It concludes by briefly discussing emerging work in the anthropology of religion that is relevant to the issue of religious tolerance.
Hillard Kaplan, Paul L. Hooper, Jonathan Stieglitz, and Michael Gurven
- Published in print:
- 2015
- Published Online:
- May 2015
- ISBN:
- 9780199688203
- eISBN:
- 9780191767500
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199688203.003.0013
- Subject:
- Economics and Finance, Development, Growth, and Environmental
This chapter examines causal processes underlying change in demographic outcomes among the Tsimane of lowland Bolivia. Prospective data collected between 2002 and 2010 shows that the loss of an ...
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This chapter examines causal processes underlying change in demographic outcomes among the Tsimane of lowland Bolivia. Prospective data collected between 2002 and 2010 shows that the loss of an infant leads to an earlier progression to the next birth, as do prospective measures of maternal health. The total fertility rate is about 8.8, but greater integration with the Bolivian market and educational system is associated with lower fertility rates. The data indicate tangible trade-offs between fertility and infant mortality. Infants of first-time mothers who delay reproduction show significantly improved survival rates. Short interbirth intervals increase the mortality risks of subsequent infants. Indicators of the mother’s nutritional and health status also significantly predict infant mortality. These results reflect the bidirectionality of relationships between fertility and mortality that evolutionary biologists and recently demographers have noted: sustained increases as well as decreases in fertility may be characteristic of early stages of demographic transition.Less
This chapter examines causal processes underlying change in demographic outcomes among the Tsimane of lowland Bolivia. Prospective data collected between 2002 and 2010 shows that the loss of an infant leads to an earlier progression to the next birth, as do prospective measures of maternal health. The total fertility rate is about 8.8, but greater integration with the Bolivian market and educational system is associated with lower fertility rates. The data indicate tangible trade-offs between fertility and infant mortality. Infants of first-time mothers who delay reproduction show significantly improved survival rates. Short interbirth intervals increase the mortality risks of subsequent infants. Indicators of the mother’s nutritional and health status also significantly predict infant mortality. These results reflect the bidirectionality of relationships between fertility and mortality that evolutionary biologists and recently demographers have noted: sustained increases as well as decreases in fertility may be characteristic of early stages of demographic transition.