Marilyn McCord Adams
- Published in print:
- 2010
- Published Online:
- January 2011
- ISBN:
- 9780199591053
- eISBN:
- 9780191595554
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199591053.003.0005
- Subject:
- Religion, Theology, Philosophy of Religion
For Aquinas and Giles, two questions loom large: how can the Body of Christ be there, where the bread still seems to be, and how can it get there without abandoning its throne in heaven? This chapter ...
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For Aquinas and Giles, two questions loom large: how can the Body of Christ be there, where the bread still seems to be, and how can it get there without abandoning its throne in heaven? This chapter examines their answers. Philosophically, they agree that a body is located in place per se through the commensuration of the parts of its own determinate quantity with the parts of place; and that it is metaphysically impossible for two determinate quantities to be commensurate with one place or one determinate quantity with two places at the same time. They conclude that the Body of Christ is present on altars only per accidens, not through its own determinate quantity but by being present to the determinate quantity of the bread. Aquinas contends that neither Aristotelian changes nor creation nor annihilation can get Christ's Body on the altar. ‘Thomistic transubstantiation’ posits the whole-being conversion of the bread-substance into the Body of Christ. Giles tries ingeniously to clarify Aquinas' proposal and to make it more precise.Less
For Aquinas and Giles, two questions loom large: how can the Body of Christ be there, where the bread still seems to be, and how can it get there without abandoning its throne in heaven? This chapter examines their answers. Philosophically, they agree that a body is located in place per se through the commensuration of the parts of its own determinate quantity with the parts of place; and that it is metaphysically impossible for two determinate quantities to be commensurate with one place or one determinate quantity with two places at the same time. They conclude that the Body of Christ is present on altars only per accidens, not through its own determinate quantity but by being present to the determinate quantity of the bread. Aquinas contends that neither Aristotelian changes nor creation nor annihilation can get Christ's Body on the altar. ‘Thomistic transubstantiation’ posits the whole-being conversion of the bread-substance into the Body of Christ. Giles tries ingeniously to clarify Aquinas' proposal and to make it more precise.
Marilyn McCord Adams
- Published in print:
- 2010
- Published Online:
- January 2011
- ISBN:
- 9780199591053
- eISBN:
- 9780191595554
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199591053.003.0007
- Subject:
- Religion, Theology, Philosophy of Religion
Scotus finds Giles' ‘improvements’ on Aquinas metaphysically tangled. This chapter examines Scotus' critique and his own fresh definitions: productive transubstantiation (extant substance S1 wholly ...
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Scotus finds Giles' ‘improvements’ on Aquinas metaphysically tangled. This chapter examines Scotus' critique and his own fresh definitions: productive transubstantiation (extant substance S1 wholly ceases to exist, whereupon S2 wholly comes into existence for the first time) and translative transubstantiation (whole substance S1 is first here [at P] and then not here [at P], while whole substance S2 is first not here [at P] and then here [at P]). What happens on the altar is a case of translative transubstantiation. Scotus emphasizes that translative transubstantiation is thus logically independent of the bread's ceasing to exist. Pace Aquinas, the non-existence of the altar bread is neither metaphysically nor physically required for the Body of Christ to be newly located there.Less
Scotus finds Giles' ‘improvements’ on Aquinas metaphysically tangled. This chapter examines Scotus' critique and his own fresh definitions: productive transubstantiation (extant substance S1 wholly ceases to exist, whereupon S2 wholly comes into existence for the first time) and translative transubstantiation (whole substance S1 is first here [at P] and then not here [at P], while whole substance S2 is first not here [at P] and then here [at P]). What happens on the altar is a case of translative transubstantiation. Scotus emphasizes that translative transubstantiation is thus logically independent of the bread's ceasing to exist. Pace Aquinas, the non-existence of the altar bread is neither metaphysically nor physically required for the Body of Christ to be newly located there.
Marilyn McCord Adams
- Published in print:
- 2010
- Published Online:
- January 2011
- ISBN:
- 9780199591053
- eISBN:
- 9780191595554
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199591053.003.0010
- Subject:
- Religion, Theology, Philosophy of Religion
Scotus and Ockham both deny that reified quantity can play any role in the individuation of material substances or their accidents. Moreover, they interpret Aristotle as saying, not that only ...
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Scotus and Ockham both deny that reified quantity can play any role in the individuation of material substances or their accidents. Moreover, they interpret Aristotle as saying, not that only substances are agents properly speaking, but that only individuals are. This chapter analyzes their recalculations of accident-independence and the causal roles that the eucharistic accidents play. Scotus weighs up considerations from the essential orders of dependence and eminence and sees no reason why — by Divine power — qualities as much as quantities could not exist without inhering in a subject. Ockham argues against the reification of quantity on philosophical grounds and so holds that bread-qualities exist independently after consecration. Both invoke Divine power to explain changes issuing in new substances. Scotus makes the same move with respect to condensation and rarefaction of the eucharistic accidents, but Ockham's own view accounts for this easily in terms of the locomotion of quality parts.Less
Scotus and Ockham both deny that reified quantity can play any role in the individuation of material substances or their accidents. Moreover, they interpret Aristotle as saying, not that only substances are agents properly speaking, but that only individuals are. This chapter analyzes their recalculations of accident-independence and the causal roles that the eucharistic accidents play. Scotus weighs up considerations from the essential orders of dependence and eminence and sees no reason why — by Divine power — qualities as much as quantities could not exist without inhering in a subject. Ockham argues against the reification of quantity on philosophical grounds and so holds that bread-qualities exist independently after consecration. Both invoke Divine power to explain changes issuing in new substances. Scotus makes the same move with respect to condensation and rarefaction of the eucharistic accidents, but Ockham's own view accounts for this easily in terms of the locomotion of quality parts.
Marilyn McCord Adams
- Published in print:
- 2010
- Published Online:
- January 2011
- ISBN:
- 9780199591053
- eISBN:
- 9780191595554
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199591053.003.0012
- Subject:
- Religion, Theology, Philosophy of Religion
Real presence plus eucharistic eating threatens to expose the Body of Christ to tearing and chewing, digestion and excretion. This chapter first examines how two medieval theories evade this ...
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Real presence plus eucharistic eating threatens to expose the Body of Christ to tearing and chewing, digestion and excretion. This chapter first examines how two medieval theories evade this consequence: impanation — the Body of Christ assumes the bread substance the way the Divine Word assumes human nature — which would confine literal eating and digestion to the bread-body of Christ; and several forms of transubstantiation, which allow the bread-accidents to be eaten and digested but put Christ's Body on the altar unextended and so not causally interactive there. Eating can be dishonoring to Christ, even if no injury is possible. The chapter then reviews ways in which requirements for self-examination and fasting as well as regulations about priestly reception and distribution to known sinners, were meant to protect Christ's honor.Less
Real presence plus eucharistic eating threatens to expose the Body of Christ to tearing and chewing, digestion and excretion. This chapter first examines how two medieval theories evade this consequence: impanation — the Body of Christ assumes the bread substance the way the Divine Word assumes human nature — which would confine literal eating and digestion to the bread-body of Christ; and several forms of transubstantiation, which allow the bread-accidents to be eaten and digested but put Christ's Body on the altar unextended and so not causally interactive there. Eating can be dishonoring to Christ, even if no injury is possible. The chapter then reviews ways in which requirements for self-examination and fasting as well as regulations about priestly reception and distribution to known sinners, were meant to protect Christ's honor.
Winifred Breines
- Published in print:
- 2006
- Published Online:
- September 2007
- ISBN:
- 9780195179040
- eISBN:
- 9780199788583
- Item type:
- book
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195179040.001.0001
- Subject:
- History, American History: 20th Century
This book considers why a racially integrated feminist movement did not develop in the second wave of the feminist movement in the 1970s. It looks at radical white and black women in the civil rights ...
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This book considers why a racially integrated feminist movement did not develop in the second wave of the feminist movement in the 1970s. It looks at radical white and black women in the civil rights movement: black women in the Black Power movement and the Black Panther Party; Bread and Roses, a primarily white Boston socialist feminist organization, black feminism with a focus on the Combahee River Collective in Boston; and cross-racial work and conferences in the late 1970s and early 1980s. It asks why the primarily white radical feminist movement has been considered racist and whether white women's racism kept African Americans away from the white movement. White radical feminists were committed to racial equality and to building a racially integrated movement. But due to young white radical women's romanticism, unconscious racism, segregated upbringing, and class privileges, the radical feminist movement they built was not attractive to black women. Influenced by the Black Power movement, radical black women were wary of white women. They distrusted white women's privilege, their focus on sisterhood without clearly recognizing difference based on race and class, and white women's innocence. Further, African American women were uninterested in white feminism because they were politically engaged with black nationalism and racial pride. Radical black women came to believe that they had to develop their own feminism, one which recognized the centrality of race and class to gender difference. Eventually, through much work and pain, instances occurred in which white and black feminists worked together politically. Their learning curve about gender, race, and class was steep in these years. Youthful American radical feminists were racial pioneers in developing a social movement that demonstrated politically how gender, race, and class are central to understanding and struggling against social inequality.Less
This book considers why a racially integrated feminist movement did not develop in the second wave of the feminist movement in the 1970s. It looks at radical white and black women in the civil rights movement: black women in the Black Power movement and the Black Panther Party; Bread and Roses, a primarily white Boston socialist feminist organization, black feminism with a focus on the Combahee River Collective in Boston; and cross-racial work and conferences in the late 1970s and early 1980s. It asks why the primarily white radical feminist movement has been considered racist and whether white women's racism kept African Americans away from the white movement. White radical feminists were committed to racial equality and to building a racially integrated movement. But due to young white radical women's romanticism, unconscious racism, segregated upbringing, and class privileges, the radical feminist movement they built was not attractive to black women. Influenced by the Black Power movement, radical black women were wary of white women. They distrusted white women's privilege, their focus on sisterhood without clearly recognizing difference based on race and class, and white women's innocence. Further, African American women were uninterested in white feminism because they were politically engaged with black nationalism and racial pride. Radical black women came to believe that they had to develop their own feminism, one which recognized the centrality of race and class to gender difference. Eventually, through much work and pain, instances occurred in which white and black feminists worked together politically. Their learning curve about gender, race, and class was steep in these years. Youthful American radical feminists were racial pioneers in developing a social movement that demonstrated politically how gender, race, and class are central to understanding and struggling against social inequality.
Henry Chadwick
- Published in print:
- 2003
- Published Online:
- October 2011
- ISBN:
- 9780199264575
- eISBN:
- 9780191698958
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199264575.003.0033
- Subject:
- Religion, Church History, Early Christian Studies
This chapter discusses the case of the unleavened bread and arguments against the traditional Greek usage of ordinary bread. Humbert defended the use of unleavened bread on the grounds that Christ ...
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This chapter discusses the case of the unleavened bread and arguments against the traditional Greek usage of ordinary bread. Humbert defended the use of unleavened bread on the grounds that Christ himself had used it at the Last Supper, and it was for him an immemorial western tradition. In his view, the carelessness of Greek churches in regard to the eucharistic bread was demonstrated by lack of reverence to the unconsumed remains at the end of the liturgy, commonly buried to the ground or thrown into the well. His protest against the burial of consecrated remains is described.Less
This chapter discusses the case of the unleavened bread and arguments against the traditional Greek usage of ordinary bread. Humbert defended the use of unleavened bread on the grounds that Christ himself had used it at the Last Supper, and it was for him an immemorial western tradition. In his view, the carelessness of Greek churches in regard to the eucharistic bread was demonstrated by lack of reverence to the unconsumed remains at the end of the liturgy, commonly buried to the ground or thrown into the well. His protest against the burial of consecrated remains is described.
Anna Wierzbicka
- Published in print:
- 2001
- Published Online:
- November 2003
- ISBN:
- 9780195137330
- eISBN:
- 9780199867905
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/0195137337.003.0005
- Subject:
- Religion, Biblical Studies
As the linguist and renowned expert in the field of Bible translation, Eugene Nida has pointed out, “almost no lay person understands the meaning of the first petition in the Lord's prayer (Hallowed ...
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As the linguist and renowned expert in the field of Bible translation, Eugene Nida has pointed out, “almost no lay person understands the meaning of the first petition in the Lord's prayer (Hallowed be thy name). In fact, there are good reasons to think that the Lord's Prayer as a whole is often incomprehensible to lay people – not only in societies distant, geographically and culturally, from European culture but also in the traditionally Christian West. This chapter shows how the meaning of the metaphors of “Father,” “kingdom” and “bread,” and of all the petitions can be explained in simple and universal human concepts, in a way which would make it comprehensible to children as well as adults, and to Papuans or Zulus as well as Europeans or Americans. Above all, it shows how the meaning of the Lord's Prayer can be transferred into languages that have no words, or concepts, like “forgive” and how it can be explained to people who may not value fathers, kingdoms, or bread. It also shows that once the notion of “God” has been explained in universal human concepts, the idea of “Kingdom of God” can be explained, in all languages, in terms of “living with God, with other people.”Less
As the linguist and renowned expert in the field of Bible translation, Eugene Nida has pointed out, “almost no lay person understands the meaning of the first petition in the Lord's prayer (Hallowed be thy name). In fact, there are good reasons to think that the Lord's Prayer as a whole is often incomprehensible to lay people – not only in societies distant, geographically and culturally, from European culture but also in the traditionally Christian West. This chapter shows how the meaning of the metaphors of “Father,” “kingdom” and “bread,” and of all the petitions can be explained in simple and universal human concepts, in a way which would make it comprehensible to children as well as adults, and to Papuans or Zulus as well as Europeans or Americans. Above all, it shows how the meaning of the Lord's Prayer can be transferred into languages that have no words, or concepts, like “forgive” and how it can be explained to people who may not value fathers, kingdoms, or bread. It also shows that once the notion of “God” has been explained in universal human concepts, the idea of “Kingdom of God” can be explained, in all languages, in terms of “living with God, with other people.”
L. A. Clarkson and E. Margaret Crawford
- Published in print:
- 2001
- Published Online:
- January 2010
- ISBN:
- 9780198227519
- eISBN:
- 9780191708374
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198227519.003.0010
- Subject:
- History, British and Irish Early Modern History, British and Irish Modern History
This chapter wonders why, since food was so important to life, there has not been more legislation touching its production and consumption. For decades municipalities intermittently used the assize ...
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This chapter wonders why, since food was so important to life, there has not been more legislation touching its production and consumption. For decades municipalities intermittently used the assize of bread to regulate the price of a loaf of bread. In the 18th century, a series of acts of the Dublin parliament attempted to codify the assize into a national system, but the increasing complexity of the trade in grain, flour, and bread caused the collapse of the whole structure in the 1830s. Governments also concerned themselves with the quality of food. During periods of food shortages they attempted regulate the grain trade. Import and excise duties affected patterns of consumption. Famines, especially the Great Famine, prompted famine relief measures.Less
This chapter wonders why, since food was so important to life, there has not been more legislation touching its production and consumption. For decades municipalities intermittently used the assize of bread to regulate the price of a loaf of bread. In the 18th century, a series of acts of the Dublin parliament attempted to codify the assize into a national system, but the increasing complexity of the trade in grain, flour, and bread caused the collapse of the whole structure in the 1830s. Governments also concerned themselves with the quality of food. During periods of food shortages they attempted regulate the grain trade. Import and excise duties affected patterns of consumption. Famines, especially the Great Famine, prompted famine relief measures.
Vuyani Vellam
- Published in print:
- 2015
- Published Online:
- May 2016
- ISBN:
- 9781628462005
- eISBN:
- 9781626745094
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- University Press of Mississippi
- DOI:
- 10.14325/mississippi/9781628462005.003.0012
- Subject:
- Sociology, Race and Ethnicity
Legitimacy is a two pronged process that is validated through consensing and consenting. Both these prongs require mediation by symbols of the marginalized harnessed outside the contours of Western ...
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Legitimacy is a two pronged process that is validated through consensing and consenting. Both these prongs require mediation by symbols of the marginalized harnessed outside the contours of Western traditional forms of ecclesiology to validate state legitimacy. A disjuncture between consenting and consensing in the quest for state legitimacy after the demise of apartheid implies a disjuncture between the political procedures (legal) and the mystical (symbolic, normative) which has a bearing on progressive church activism in the contested post-racial democratic discourse in South Africa. This plausibility can be offered by Black Theology of liberation which expanded the contours of traditional Western forms of theology in South Africa.Less
Legitimacy is a two pronged process that is validated through consensing and consenting. Both these prongs require mediation by symbols of the marginalized harnessed outside the contours of Western traditional forms of ecclesiology to validate state legitimacy. A disjuncture between consenting and consensing in the quest for state legitimacy after the demise of apartheid implies a disjuncture between the political procedures (legal) and the mystical (symbolic, normative) which has a bearing on progressive church activism in the contested post-racial democratic discourse in South Africa. This plausibility can be offered by Black Theology of liberation which expanded the contours of traditional Western forms of theology in South Africa.
Judith Herrin
- Published in print:
- 2013
- Published Online:
- October 2017
- ISBN:
- 9780691153018
- eISBN:
- 9781400845224
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Princeton University Press
- DOI:
- 10.23943/princeton/9780691153018.003.0013
- Subject:
- History, World Medieval History
This chapter examines how charity came into existence under the Byzantine Empire. It discusses three stages in the development of Byzantine charity: the first, from Apostolic times to the ending of ...
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This chapter examines how charity came into existence under the Byzantine Empire. It discusses three stages in the development of Byzantine charity: the first, from Apostolic times to the ending of imperial persecution (313); the second, from the endowments of Constantine I to those of Justinian (527–65); and a third, from the Christian patronage of Justin II (565–78) to that of Herakleios (610–41). It considers the transition from the form of imperial largesse (symbolized by bread and circuses) to a different but also imperial form (soup and salvation, supported and often financed by Christian rulers). It shows that Christian charity totally replaced ancient philanthropy in the seventh century, sanctioned by the state–church alliance forged by Herakleios.Less
This chapter examines how charity came into existence under the Byzantine Empire. It discusses three stages in the development of Byzantine charity: the first, from Apostolic times to the ending of imperial persecution (313); the second, from the endowments of Constantine I to those of Justinian (527–65); and a third, from the Christian patronage of Justin II (565–78) to that of Herakleios (610–41). It considers the transition from the form of imperial largesse (symbolized by bread and circuses) to a different but also imperial form (soup and salvation, supported and often financed by Christian rulers). It shows that Christian charity totally replaced ancient philanthropy in the seventh century, sanctioned by the state–church alliance forged by Herakleios.
Ina Zweiniger‐Bargielowska
- Published in print:
- 2010
- Published Online:
- January 2011
- ISBN:
- 9780199280520
- eISBN:
- 9780191594878
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199280520.003.0005
- Subject:
- History, British and Irish Modern History
The dysgenic disaster of the First World War compounded anxieties about physical deterioration. Sir George Newman, Chief Medical Officer at the new Ministry of Health, advocated health education as ...
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The dysgenic disaster of the First World War compounded anxieties about physical deterioration. Sir George Newman, Chief Medical Officer at the new Ministry of Health, advocated health education as an essential aspect of preventive medicine. New pressure groups including the People's League of Health, the Sunlight League, and the New Health Society promoted healthy living as a duty of citizenship. They aimed to transform Britain from a C3 to an A1 nation. These military categories became a recurrent metaphor throughout the interwar years and the virtuous habits of the healthy and fit A1 citizen were juxtaposed with those of the C3 anti‐citizen whose undisciplined lifestyle was attributed to ignorance and lack of self‐control. The revival of life reform was further stimulated by the discovery of vitamins and a new interest in the healing power of sunlight. Dietary advice was not monolithic and the health benefits of wholemeal bread were contested.Less
The dysgenic disaster of the First World War compounded anxieties about physical deterioration. Sir George Newman, Chief Medical Officer at the new Ministry of Health, advocated health education as an essential aspect of preventive medicine. New pressure groups including the People's League of Health, the Sunlight League, and the New Health Society promoted healthy living as a duty of citizenship. They aimed to transform Britain from a C3 to an A1 nation. These military categories became a recurrent metaphor throughout the interwar years and the virtuous habits of the healthy and fit A1 citizen were juxtaposed with those of the C3 anti‐citizen whose undisciplined lifestyle was attributed to ignorance and lack of self‐control. The revival of life reform was further stimulated by the discovery of vitamins and a new interest in the healing power of sunlight. Dietary advice was not monolithic and the health benefits of wholemeal bread were contested.
Mary McAuley
- Published in print:
- 1991
- Published Online:
- October 2011
- ISBN:
- 9780198219828
- eISBN:
- 9780191678387
- Item type:
- book
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198219828.001.0001
- Subject:
- History, European Modern History
This is a study of Petrograd in the period immediately following the Russian Revolution. Formerly the imperial capital St. Petersburg, in the years after 1917 Petrograd became a revolutionary ...
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This is a study of Petrograd in the period immediately following the Russian Revolution. Formerly the imperial capital St. Petersburg, in the years after 1917 Petrograd became a revolutionary citadel. This political and social history throws into relief the interplay of factors that contributed to the formation of the new Soviet state. A detailed account of life in the city provides new insights into the progress of the Russian Revolution and the establishment, in 1921, of the Leninist political order. The book is based on a wide array of original sources, including newspapers, pamphlets, posters, memoirs, and personal interviews. It paints a multi-dimensional picture of everyday life in post-Revolutionary Petrograd, exploring themes such as violence and unemployment, civic justice and bread rations, political ideas and cultural dreams. This is a book about the people of the city — Bolshevik commissars, imperial princesses, hungry schoolchildren, and theatre artists all make their appearance — and about the impact of the Russian Revolution on their lives.Less
This is a study of Petrograd in the period immediately following the Russian Revolution. Formerly the imperial capital St. Petersburg, in the years after 1917 Petrograd became a revolutionary citadel. This political and social history throws into relief the interplay of factors that contributed to the formation of the new Soviet state. A detailed account of life in the city provides new insights into the progress of the Russian Revolution and the establishment, in 1921, of the Leninist political order. The book is based on a wide array of original sources, including newspapers, pamphlets, posters, memoirs, and personal interviews. It paints a multi-dimensional picture of everyday life in post-Revolutionary Petrograd, exploring themes such as violence and unemployment, civic justice and bread rations, political ideas and cultural dreams. This is a book about the people of the city — Bolshevik commissars, imperial princesses, hungry schoolchildren, and theatre artists all make their appearance — and about the impact of the Russian Revolution on their lives.
Linda Civitello
- Published in print:
- 2017
- Published Online:
- January 2018
- ISBN:
- 9780252041082
- eISBN:
- 9780252099632
- Item type:
- book
- Publisher:
- University of Illinois Press
- DOI:
- 10.5406/illinois/9780252041082.001.0001
- Subject:
- Sociology, Culture
This book is about the Hundred Years War of food business, how a mid-nineteenth century American invention, baking powder, replaced yeast as a leavening agent and created a culinary revolution as ...
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This book is about the Hundred Years War of food business, how a mid-nineteenth century American invention, baking powder, replaced yeast as a leavening agent and created a culinary revolution as profound as the use of yeast thousands of years ago. Before government regulation, the force controlling the market was not a visible or invisible hand, but advertising sleight of hand. Four companies—Rumford, Royal, Calumet, and Clabber Girl—fought advertising, trade, legislative, scientific, and judicial wars with proprietary cookbooks, lawsuits, trade cards, and bribes. In the process, they altered or created cake, cupcakes, cookies, biscuits, pancakes, quick breads, waffles, doughnuts, and other foods, and forged a distinct American culinary identity. This new American chemical leavening shortcut also changed the breadstuffs of Native Americans and every immigrant group and was a force for assimilation. The wars continued in spite of scandals exposed by muckraking journalists and investigation by President Theodore Roosevelt, through WWI, the 1920s, the Depression, and WWII in every state, territory, and kitchen in the United States until standardization finally occurred at the end of the twentieth century. Now, global businesses such as McDonald’s and Kentucky Fried Chicken depend on baking powder for their baked goods, and baking powder is in home and commercial kitchens around the world.Less
This book is about the Hundred Years War of food business, how a mid-nineteenth century American invention, baking powder, replaced yeast as a leavening agent and created a culinary revolution as profound as the use of yeast thousands of years ago. Before government regulation, the force controlling the market was not a visible or invisible hand, but advertising sleight of hand. Four companies—Rumford, Royal, Calumet, and Clabber Girl—fought advertising, trade, legislative, scientific, and judicial wars with proprietary cookbooks, lawsuits, trade cards, and bribes. In the process, they altered or created cake, cupcakes, cookies, biscuits, pancakes, quick breads, waffles, doughnuts, and other foods, and forged a distinct American culinary identity. This new American chemical leavening shortcut also changed the breadstuffs of Native Americans and every immigrant group and was a force for assimilation. The wars continued in spite of scandals exposed by muckraking journalists and investigation by President Theodore Roosevelt, through WWI, the 1920s, the Depression, and WWII in every state, territory, and kitchen in the United States until standardization finally occurred at the end of the twentieth century. Now, global businesses such as McDonald’s and Kentucky Fried Chicken depend on baking powder for their baked goods, and baking powder is in home and commercial kitchens around the world.
Andrew McGowan
- Published in print:
- 1999
- Published Online:
- September 2011
- ISBN:
- 9780198269724
- eISBN:
- 9780191683770
- Item type:
- book
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198269724.001.0001
- Subject:
- Religion, Early Christian Studies
The early Eucharist has usually been seen as sacramental eating of token bread and
wine in careful or even slavish imitation of Jesus and his earliest disciples. In
fact the evidence suggests great ...
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The early Eucharist has usually been seen as sacramental eating of token bread and
wine in careful or even slavish imitation of Jesus and his earliest disciples. In
fact the evidence suggests great diversity in its conduct, including the use of
foods, in the first few hundred years. Eucharistic meals involving cheese, milk,
salt, oil, and vegetables are attested, and some have argued that even fish was
used. The most significant exception to using bread and wine, however, was a
‘bread-and-water’ Christian meal, an ancient ascetic form of
the Eucharist. This tradition also involved rejection of meat from general diet, and
reflected the concern of dissident communities to avoid the cuisine —
meat and wine — characteristic of pagan sacrifice. This study describes
and discusses these practices fully for the first time, and provides important new
insights into the liturgical and social history of early Christianity.Less
The early Eucharist has usually been seen as sacramental eating of token bread and
wine in careful or even slavish imitation of Jesus and his earliest disciples. In
fact the evidence suggests great diversity in its conduct, including the use of
foods, in the first few hundred years. Eucharistic meals involving cheese, milk,
salt, oil, and vegetables are attested, and some have argued that even fish was
used. The most significant exception to using bread and wine, however, was a
‘bread-and-water’ Christian meal, an ancient ascetic form of
the Eucharist. This tradition also involved rejection of meat from general diet, and
reflected the concern of dissident communities to avoid the cuisine —
meat and wine — characteristic of pagan sacrifice. This study describes
and discusses these practices fully for the first time, and provides important new
insights into the liturgical and social history of early Christianity.
Mary McAuley
- Published in print:
- 1991
- Published Online:
- October 2011
- ISBN:
- 9780198219828
- eISBN:
- 9780191678387
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198219828.003.0001
- Subject:
- History, European Modern History
This chapter provides a historical background to the Bolshevik seizure of power. In October 1917, during a revolution set in motion by the bread riots of the preceding February, the Bolsheviks had ...
More
This chapter provides a historical background to the Bolshevik seizure of power. In October 1917, during a revolution set in motion by the bread riots of the preceding February, the Bolsheviks had seized power in the Tsarist capital. The next four years saw their attempts to further the revolution, to hold on to power, to defeat the opposition, and to create a new type of workers' state. By the end of 1921 the framework of a new political order was in place. The main concern in this volume is to analyse the process of state-building that took place after October, to describe the main features of the new state, and its relationship to its citizens. The Bolsheviks saw themselves as stepping out on to the path of socialism, bringing democracy, freedom, and justice.Less
This chapter provides a historical background to the Bolshevik seizure of power. In October 1917, during a revolution set in motion by the bread riots of the preceding February, the Bolsheviks had seized power in the Tsarist capital. The next four years saw their attempts to further the revolution, to hold on to power, to defeat the opposition, and to create a new type of workers' state. By the end of 1921 the framework of a new political order was in place. The main concern in this volume is to analyse the process of state-building that took place after October, to describe the main features of the new state, and its relationship to its citizens. The Bolsheviks saw themselves as stepping out on to the path of socialism, bringing democracy, freedom, and justice.
Massimo Montanari
- Published in print:
- 2013
- Published Online:
- November 2015
- ISBN:
- 9780231160841
- eISBN:
- 9780231535083
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Columbia University Press
- DOI:
- 10.7312/columbia/9780231160841.003.0007
- Subject:
- Sociology, Culture
This chapter examines how Italians became stereotyped as “macaroni-eaters,” or pasta-eaters. In the first half of the seventeenth century, the importance of pasta increased when production problems ...
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This chapter examines how Italians became stereotyped as “macaroni-eaters,” or pasta-eaters. In the first half of the seventeenth century, the importance of pasta increased when production problems and the inefficiency of the public market in Naples caused the shortage of meat and vegetables that were mainstays of the popular diet. This resulted in the heavy shift to carbohydrates, causing bread and pasta to become increasingly dominant. Pasta began to be produced at lower costs, encouraging its promotion as a “basic” food. The pairing of pasta and cheese, dominated over the traditional duality of cabbage and meat: a dietary solution that assured an adequate intake of calories as well as the desired feeling of satiety. Consequently, macaroni became synonymous with Naples. To eat macaroni suggests sharing a culture, thereby transforming the symbol of Naples into a symbol of the Nation.Less
This chapter examines how Italians became stereotyped as “macaroni-eaters,” or pasta-eaters. In the first half of the seventeenth century, the importance of pasta increased when production problems and the inefficiency of the public market in Naples caused the shortage of meat and vegetables that were mainstays of the popular diet. This resulted in the heavy shift to carbohydrates, causing bread and pasta to become increasingly dominant. Pasta began to be produced at lower costs, encouraging its promotion as a “basic” food. The pairing of pasta and cheese, dominated over the traditional duality of cabbage and meat: a dietary solution that assured an adequate intake of calories as well as the desired feeling of satiety. Consequently, macaroni became synonymous with Naples. To eat macaroni suggests sharing a culture, thereby transforming the symbol of Naples into a symbol of the Nation.
Andrew McGowan
- Published in print:
- 1999
- Published Online:
- September 2011
- ISBN:
- 9780198269724
- eISBN:
- 9780191683770
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198269724.003.0004
- Subject:
- Religion, Early Christian Studies
This chapter considers cases where bread and water are the elements of the
eucharistic meal. It shows that the bread-and-water pattern is not simply a
rare and extreme case of ‘encratite’ adaptation ...
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This chapter considers cases where bread and water are the elements of the
eucharistic meal. It shows that the bread-and-water pattern is not simply a
rare and extreme case of ‘encratite’ adaptation of the
Christian eucharist, but an important and widespread tradition in early
Eastern Christianity, especially in Syria and Asia.Less
This chapter considers cases where bread and water are the elements of the
eucharistic meal. It shows that the bread-and-water pattern is not simply a
rare and extreme case of ‘encratite’ adaptation of the
Christian eucharist, but an important and widespread tradition in early
Eastern Christianity, especially in Syria and Asia.
Andrew McGowan
- Published in print:
- 1999
- Published Online:
- September 2011
- ISBN:
- 9780198269724
- eISBN:
- 9780191683770
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198269724.003.0005
- Subject:
- Religion, Early Christian Studies
The examples of bread-and-water tradition discussed so far have been somewhat
disparate, and consist largely of passing indications or polemical
descriptions from authors to whom the ascetic meal ...
More
The examples of bread-and-water tradition discussed so far have been somewhat
disparate, and consist largely of passing indications or polemical
descriptions from authors to whom the ascetic meal tradition was a curiosity
or a danger. This chapter considers the Pseudo-Clementines and the
apocryphal Acts, which present eucharistic meals using bread and
water as a matter of course. The two bodies of literature also have in
common the understanding that this use of food represents an alternative to
pagan sacrificial meals, which in some cases are characterized as
demonic.Less
The examples of bread-and-water tradition discussed so far have been somewhat
disparate, and consist largely of passing indications or polemical
descriptions from authors to whom the ascetic meal tradition was a curiosity
or a danger. This chapter considers the Pseudo-Clementines and the
apocryphal Acts, which present eucharistic meals using bread and
water as a matter of course. The two bodies of literature also have in
common the understanding that this use of food represents an alternative to
pagan sacrificial meals, which in some cases are characterized as
demonic.
Andrew McGowan
- Published in print:
- 1999
- Published Online:
- September 2011
- ISBN:
- 9780198269724
- eISBN:
- 9780191683770
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198269724.003.0006
- Subject:
- Religion, Early Christian Studies
This chapter considers cases where the use of bread and water in eucharistic
meals appears in what are otherwise orthodox sources. It discusses evidence
from the following texts: the 3rd-century ...
More
This chapter considers cases where the use of bread and water in eucharistic
meals appears in what are otherwise orthodox sources. It discusses evidence
from the following texts: the 3rd-century Martyrdom of Pionius, the
letter of Cyprian of Carthage to Caecilius, and Theodoret's
Hydroparastatai.Less
This chapter considers cases where the use of bread and water in eucharistic
meals appears in what are otherwise orthodox sources. It discusses evidence
from the following texts: the 3rd-century Martyrdom of Pionius, the
letter of Cyprian of Carthage to Caecilius, and Theodoret's
Hydroparastatai.
Andrew McGowan
- Published in print:
- 1999
- Published Online:
- September 2011
- ISBN:
- 9780198269724
- eISBN:
- 9780191683770
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198269724.003.0007
- Subject:
- Religion, Early Christian Studies
This chapter considers the New Testament as a source for the bread-and-water
tradition in two senses: first as a possible repository of earlier evidence
for similar ascetic and ritual meal practices ...
More
This chapter considers the New Testament as a source for the bread-and-water
tradition in two senses: first as a possible repository of earlier evidence
for similar ascetic and ritual meal practices in Christian circles; second,
as providing models or other bases for meal practice in the bread-and-water
tradition as attested in the following two centuries or so. It argues that
while the bread-and-water tradition presents itself in terms that invite
some analysis in terms of duality of meal traditions, with the ascetic
refusal of the cuisine of sacrifice representing a stance that can be
contrasted not only with the meat and wine of pagan sacrifice, but also with
the more clearly sacrificial meal of the eventually normative tradition and
its generous use of Jesus' body and blood, this is not the same duality
suggested by theorists of eucharistic origins earlier this century. In fact,
evidence of this tradition presents some specific problems for theories of
dual eucharistic origins.Less
This chapter considers the New Testament as a source for the bread-and-water
tradition in two senses: first as a possible repository of earlier evidence
for similar ascetic and ritual meal practices in Christian circles; second,
as providing models or other bases for meal practice in the bread-and-water
tradition as attested in the following two centuries or so. It argues that
while the bread-and-water tradition presents itself in terms that invite
some analysis in terms of duality of meal traditions, with the ascetic
refusal of the cuisine of sacrifice representing a stance that can be
contrasted not only with the meat and wine of pagan sacrifice, but also with
the more clearly sacrificial meal of the eventually normative tradition and
its generous use of Jesus' body and blood, this is not the same duality
suggested by theorists of eucharistic origins earlier this century. In fact,
evidence of this tradition presents some specific problems for theories of
dual eucharistic origins.
