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EQUILIBRIUM AND ACCELERATED DEATH

Lev Ginzburg and Mark Colyvan

in Ecological Orbits: How Planets Move and Populations Grow

This chapter argues for a two-dimensional, energetically-based view of population equilibrium, and this view is supported by two large-scale observations. It suggests that thinking about equilibrium ... More

This chapter argues for a two-dimensional, energetically-based view of population equilibrium, and this view is supported by two large-scale observations. It suggests that thinking about equilibrium simply as a balance between births and deaths is too simplistic. Rather, equilibrium is a balance between rates of energy use and rates of consumption, with both birth and death rates a consequence of these more fundamental metabolic considerations.Less

Modeling the Genomic Evolution of Gene Contents

Xun Gu

in Statistical Theory and Methods for Evolutionary Genomics

Whole-genome analysis, e.g., the presence or absence of gene families over multiple genomes, is becoming an attractive approach for extracting the bulk phylogenetic signals and exploring the pattern ... More

Whole-genome analysis, e.g., the presence or absence of gene families over multiple genomes, is becoming an attractive approach for extracting the bulk phylogenetic signals and exploring the pattern of genome evolution. This chapter introduces several statistical models for this purpose. These include the likelihood function, the birth-death model with lateral gene transfer, the blocks model, the equal birth-death rate model; and the constant-birth, proportional-death model.Less

Human demography, history, and disease

Robert L. Perlman

in Evolution and Medicine

Evolution is intimately connected with demography. Differences in the fitness of organisms of different genotypes are due to differences in their age-specific survival or fertility rates. This ... More

Evolution is intimately connected with demography. Differences in the fitness of organisms of different genotypes are due to differences in their age-specific survival or fertility rates. This chapter introduces these demographic parameters. It emphasizes fertility rates, since survival (or mortality) rates will be discussed later, in the context of life histories and aging. It also reviews the demographic and disease history of the human population to give readers a context in which to think about the current burden of disease. Population growth can be understood in terms of birth rates and death rates, or in terms of women’s fertility rates. Population growth rates are decreasing around the world, as women are choosing to postpone and limit their childbearing. The demographic transition is a model that describes how societies go from a regime of high birth and death rates, and low population growth rates, through a period in which death rates decline more rapidly than birth rates and population growth increases, to a state in which birth rates decline and population growth slows. The demographic transition has been accompanied by an epidemiologic transition, in which the burden of nutritional deficiencies and infectious diseases have decreased while degenerative and man-made diseases such as diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, and stroke have become more important causes of disability and death. The chapter ends with a discussion of the future of the human population.Less

Birth and Death

Theodore Zeldin

in France 1848–1945: Volume Two: Intellect, Taste and Anxiety

The demographic history of France is very revealing not only about the attitudes of individuals towards the most basic facts of life and the status of the family, but also about the clash between ... More

The demographic history of France is very revealing not only about the attitudes of individuals towards the most basic facts of life and the status of the family, but also about the clash between their interests and the nationalist aspirations of the politicians. This conflict and the contrast between the ambitions of different sections of the community, and the way they could ignore each other, makes the problems of population much more than an exercise in statistics. The reasons why Frenchmen had small families but also deplored them are worth investigating. This chapter shows that the relationship between attitudes to death and behaviour in life, if it is ever worked out with greater precision, is unlikely to be a simple one, which can be stated by reference to a single, or even a few, social variables. It suggests, as do also the statistics on population and family, that several fundamentally opposed forms of behaviour coexisted. France was not all one in the way it tackled birth, death, or anything else.Less

Sexual Pleasure, Contraception, and Fertility Decline

Hera Cook

in The Long Sexual Revolution: English Women, Sex, and Contraception 1800-1975

This chapter argues that from the 1930s to the 1950s, it is probable that birth rates rose due to rising rates of coitus. Some aspects of the English experience are compared with American and ... More

This chapter argues that from the 1930s to the 1950s, it is probable that birth rates rose due to rising rates of coitus. Some aspects of the English experience are compared with American and Australian experiences regarding the use of contraception to reinforce the evidence for low rates of coitus in the first third of the 20th century.Less

Social Interactions and Fluctuations in Birth Rates

Hans‐Peter Kohler

in Fertility and Social Interaction: An Economic Perspective

Shows that the relevance of social interaction is not restricted to developing countries with relatively high levels of fertility. In particular, fluctuations in birth rates in developed countries ... More

Shows that the relevance of social interaction is not restricted to developing countries with relatively high levels of fertility. In particular, fluctuations in birth rates in developed countries have been considerably less regular than many explanatory theories suggest. This chapter argues that social interaction is relevant even in developed countries, where increased individualism has been associated with changing demographic behaviour. The analysis shows that social interaction can emerge in both market and non‐market situations, ranging from the evolution of social norms and values to imperfections in the labour market. A formal model for investigating the dynamic consequences of social interaction in developed countries is developed, and its aggregate implications are tested using a Markov switching regression model applied to net reproduction rates since 1930. The findings show that social interaction can lead to fluctuations in birth rates that are swift and difficult to foresee, and that these fluctuations are likely to be asymmetric: spells of low fertility have a considerably higher persistence than spells of high fertility.Less

Population and Labour

Tirthankar Roy

in The Economic History of India, 1857-1947

There are three sets of factors that determine population growth: the economic rationality of having large or small families, the sociocultural contexts influencing preferences for large or small ... More

There are three sets of factors that determine population growth: the economic rationality of having large or small families, the sociocultural contexts influencing preferences for large or small families, and health care systems and nutritional status. These relationships are explained by the ‘demographic transition’ theory. After years of having either a stagnant or slow population growth, India began to experience rapid growth from the 1920s. This chapter assesses the impact of demographic transition on the labour force, focusing first on the statistics on population growth and then turning to the structure of occupations. It also considers the causes of the increase and eventual decline in mortality rates in India as well as birth rates, migration (internal and international), and famines.Less

Falling Birth Rates and Rural Depopulation

Barbara Bennett Woodhouse

in The Ecology of Childhood: How Our Changing World Threatens Children's Rights

Chapter five moves from ethnography at the village level to examine the demographics of declining fertility and rural depopulation plaguing many affluent nations. A failure of generational renewal ... More

Chapter five moves from ethnography at the village level to examine the demographics of declining fertility and rural depopulation plaguing many affluent nations. A failure of generational renewal threatens the well-being of individuals, communities and societies. With the story of a child who is the last child in his remote Italian village, the author illustrates the critical importance of children to each other and to their communities. After introducing demographic concepts such as birth rate and replacement rate, total fertility rate and replacement rate fertility, the book discusses the low birth rate crisis in Italy where the population is declining at an unsustainable rate. It examines factors affecting birth rates, including adolescent fertility rate, mother’s marital status, percentage of women in the workforce, and gendered division of domestic labour. In comparison with Italy, US birth rates have been relatively robust; however, after the Great Recession US birth rates declined steadily and are now well below replacement rate. The chapter closes with discussion of the interplay between politics and demographics, including rules on birth right citizenship, the role of immigration in rejuvenating populations, and the misuse of demographic data to fuel anti-immigrant, sectarian, and racial conflict.Less

Young single mothers and ‘welfare reform’ in the US

Christine Carter McLaughlin and Kristin Luker

in When children become parents: Welfare state responses to teenage pregnancy

This chapter discusses the emergence of teenage pregnancy as a social problem in the US, paradoxically at a time when teenage pregnancy is declining. It presents statistical data on adolescent birth ... More

This chapter discusses the emergence of teenage pregnancy as a social problem in the US, paradoxically at a time when teenage pregnancy is declining. It presents statistical data on adolescent birth rate, teenage pregnancy rate and abortion rate; these sets of data indicate that the fall in teenage pregnancy is most likely due to improved contraceptive use rather than a corresponding decrease in the frequency of intercourse among sexually experienced teenagers. This chapter also discusses the sociological explanations of teenage pregnancy, as well as the current policy initiatives that have been put in place to help adolescent mothers. The discussions in this chapter further indicate that the ideology of welfare dependency has prevented the development of comprehensive policy responses to teenage pregnancy.Less

Demography of childhood

Jonathan Bradshaw

in The well-being of children in the UK

This chapter presents a review of recent developments in the demography of childhood in the UK and children's changing social relationships within the family. It also discusses the demographic ... More

This chapter presents a review of recent developments in the demography of childhood in the UK and children's changing social relationships within the family. It also discusses the demographic characteristics of children — their numbers, gender, age, ethnicity, geographical location and family composition. Comparisons of UK children with those of other countries are then presented. It also reports the evidence of the impact of family structure on child well-being. The fluctuations in the number and age composition of children reflect changes in fertility and birth rates. The fertility rate is influenced by changes in the number of children women will have, the timing of births and migration patterns. Recent demographic changes challenge the well-being of children in the UK, and the outcomes depend on children's and their family's ability to develop strategies that help successfully to adapt to changing circumstances.Less

Demographic Transitions

Leonardo Morlino

in The Handbook of Political, Social, and Economic Transformation

The demographic trends of the past 150 years have been sustainably influenced by two demographic transitions. Demographic transformations represent periods of interruption in the constant course of ... More

The demographic trends of the past 150 years have been sustainably influenced by two demographic transitions. Demographic transformations represent periods of interruption in the constant course of demographic development, during which time the way the reproduction of the population takes place changes significantly. Two periods of demographic transformation can be established that came about around 1900 (first demographic transition) and after the Second World War (Europe’s second demographic transition). The first demographic transformation was marked by the transition from a pre-industrial to an industrial society. The second transition was primarily based on a profound cultural change. Both periods of transformation show a considerable decline in birth rates, but also have specific characteristics. One of the striking features of the second demographic transition is that it is exclusively marked by a sharp decline in the birth rate. The first decline in the birth rate showed both a drop in birth and mortality levels. Other examples of demographic change are the changes in population reproduction experienced in the former socialist countries as a direct consequence of the transformation of society.Less

The ‘Long Family’ and its Decline 1

Leonore Davidoff

in Thicker than Water: Siblings and their Relations, 1780-1920

A high birth rate among most people meant offspring were spread over a wide age range creating an ‘intermediate generation’ between parents and younger children. Life in middle-class households could ... More

A high birth rate among most people meant offspring were spread over a wide age range creating an ‘intermediate generation’ between parents and younger children. Life in middle-class households could be crowded, added to by residential servants, pupils, apprentices, and visitors. Children and young people were expected to share space and possessions. Parents and others used a variety of routines and punishments to manage these large broods. Elder children, particularly girls, helped with and taught the younger. Given the high incidence of serious illness, and high infant and child mortality, religious beliefs were an important source of guidance and solace. Adults favoured some children over others. Youngsters were expected to conform to accepted forms of feminine and masculine behaviour. In the late nineteenth century, middle-class family size gradually declined, fuelling eugenicist fears. By the 1920s large families were looked down on, an attitude that fed class tensions.Less

Meeting the challenge of new teenage reproductive behaviour in Russia

Elena Ivanova

in When children become parents: Welfare state responses to teenage pregnancy

This chapter first analyses the statistical trends in young people's reproductive behaviour since 1965. It points out that the interest in the phenomenon of adolescent motherhood in Russia appeared ... More

This chapter first analyses the statistical trends in young people's reproductive behaviour since 1965. It points out that the interest in the phenomenon of adolescent motherhood in Russia appeared in the early 1990s, at a time of considerable increase in teenage birth rates. However, by the early 2000s young people's fertility rates dropped to the level observed in the 1970s. This chapter identifies and discusses the reasons for these changes in teenage reproductive behaviour. It also analyses the role of various political actors in the emergence of competing policy discourses in relation to teenage sex and sexual health. The chapter provides an assessment of the various initiatives relating to young people's sexual and reproductive rights. In the concluding parts of this chapter, current and future directions in the politics of teenage reproductive behaviour in Russia are discussed.Less

Revising the Niche Concept: Definitions and Mechanistic Models

Jonathan M. Chase and Mathew A. Leibold

in Ecological Niches: Linking Classical and Contemporary Approaches

This chapter proposes a quantitative definition of niche that includes a species' requirements from and impacts on a factor. Requirements refer to the conditions where an organism's birth rates ... More

This chapter proposes a quantitative definition of niche that includes a species' requirements from and impacts on a factor. Requirements refer to the conditions where an organism's birth rates exceed its death rates on a particular factor, whereas impact refers to the effect that species has on the factor. The explicit recognition of both requirement and impact components of the niche provides a general framework for understanding the problems of species interaction and coexistence, which form the basis of much ecological inquiry.Less

Parenthood in the United States

Ruth-Arlene W. Howe

in Cross Currents: Family Law and Policy in the US and England

During the turbulent years preceding World War II, the American family was ‘vital to the nation’s survival, both as a symbol of democracy and as a counterpoint to the autocratic families of the Third ... More

During the turbulent years preceding World War II, the American family was ‘vital to the nation’s survival, both as a symbol of democracy and as a counterpoint to the autocratic families of the Third Reich’. After the United States entered the war, social scientists agreed ‘that the traditional family, with its homebound mother and wage-earning father, would best maintain the domestic stability needed to win the war’. This chapter examines changing conceptions and presumptions regarding parenthood in the United States during the last half of the twentieth century in response to changing lifestyles, social attitudes, and new reproductive technologies. It also considers whether these developments mandate redefining legal parenthood. Parental legal rights and obligations are also discussed, along with demographic trends such as fertility and birth rates, whether parenting is a private or a public responsibility, and the legal rights of foster parents and grandparents.Less

The Components of Population Change

Michael Anderson and Corinne Roughley

in Scotland's Populations from the 1850s to Today

Scotland and England had broadly similar fertility and mortality trends, but Scotland’s net emigration far exceeded England’s at all periods, and in most decades was the highest in western Europe ... More

Scotland and England had broadly similar fertility and mortality trends, but Scotland’s net emigration far exceeded England’s at all periods, and in most decades was the highest in western Europe after Ireland. Analysis at local authority level shows net out-migration from almost every county in every decade until at least the 1990s, with high net outflows not just from highland and island areas but spread across most of rural Scotland and, much earlier than in England, even from the cities and largest towns. From the 1950s, Scotland had no local authorities which shared the significant net inflows found across large areas of the English south and the midlands. Graphical analysis shows major differences in crude birth and death rates in different parts of Scotland, with birth rates persistently high in the manufacturing areas of the Central Belt and low in the crofting and textile manufacturing counties.Less

Barren Land and Fecund Bodies: The Emergence of Population Discourse in Interwar Egypt

in The Great Social Laboratory: Subjects of Knowledge in Colonial and Postcolonial Egypt

This chapter, which explores the new modes of governance, expertise, and social knowledge that characterized a distinctive era of population politics in Egypt during the interwar period, examines two ... More

This chapter, which explores the new modes of governance, expertise, and social knowledge that characterized a distinctive era of population politics in Egypt during the interwar period, examines two issues arising from population debates. The first deals with the neo-Malthusian reduction of the birth rate, an issue that generated a flurry of empirical, statistical studies on historical demography as well as debates as to whether Egypt was in fact overpopulated. The second issue is the improvement of the characteristics of the population either through the encouragement and enhancement of “types,” or the elimination of “defectives” by eugenics and social welfare. The chapter also considers the emergence of the national census, Wendell Cleland's The Population Problem in Egypt (1936), the social uplift of women (through maternal and child welfare programs) and the peasantry as population control strategies, Elie Nassif's views on population, and naturalism as a legacy of Malthusian thought.Less