Fabrizio Benedetti
- Published in print:
- 2008
- Published Online:
- September 2009
- ISBN:
- 9780199559121
- eISBN:
- 9780191724022
- Item type:
- book
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199559121.001.0001
- Subject:
- Neuroscience, Molecular and Cellular Systems
One of the most widespread words in medicine is the placebo and placebo effect, although it is not always clear what it means exactly. Recent progress in biomedical research has allowed a better ...
More
One of the most widespread words in medicine is the placebo and placebo effect, although it is not always clear what it means exactly. Recent progress in biomedical research has allowed a better clarification of the placebo effect. This is an active psychobiological phenomenon which takes place in the patient's brain and that is capable of influencing both the course of a disease and the response to a therapy. The psychosocial context around the patient is crucial to placebo effects, for example the doctor's words and attitudes, and this may have a profound impact on the patient's brain which, in turn, may affect several physiological functions of the body. This book emphasizes that there is not a single placebo effect but many. The book critically reviews them in different medical conditions, such as pain, neurological disorders, psychiatric and behavioural disorders, immune and endocrine systems, cardiovascular and respiratory systems, gastrointestinal and genitourinary disorders, as well as some special conditions, such as oncology, surgery, sports medicine, and acupuncture.Less
One of the most widespread words in medicine is the placebo and placebo effect, although it is not always clear what it means exactly. Recent progress in biomedical research has allowed a better clarification of the placebo effect. This is an active psychobiological phenomenon which takes place in the patient's brain and that is capable of influencing both the course of a disease and the response to a therapy. The psychosocial context around the patient is crucial to placebo effects, for example the doctor's words and attitudes, and this may have a profound impact on the patient's brain which, in turn, may affect several physiological functions of the body. This book emphasizes that there is not a single placebo effect but many. The book critically reviews them in different medical conditions, such as pain, neurological disorders, psychiatric and behavioural disorders, immune and endocrine systems, cardiovascular and respiratory systems, gastrointestinal and genitourinary disorders, as well as some special conditions, such as oncology, surgery, sports medicine, and acupuncture.
Jacques Balthazart
- Published in print:
- 2011
- Published Online:
- January 2012
- ISBN:
- 9780199838820
- eISBN:
- 9780199919512
- Item type:
- book
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199838820.001.0001
- Subject:
- Neuroscience, Neuroendocrine and Autonomic, Development
This book presents a simple description of the biological mechanisms that are involved in the determination of sexual orientation in animals and also presumably in humans. Using scientific studies ...
More
This book presents a simple description of the biological mechanisms that are involved in the determination of sexual orientation in animals and also presumably in humans. Using scientific studies published over the last few decades, it argues that sexual orientation, both homosexual and heterosexual, is under the control of embryonic endocrine and genetic phenomena in which there is little room for individual choice. The book begins with animal studies of the hormonal and neural mechanisms that control the so-called instinctive behaviors and analyzes how this animal work may potentially apply to humans. The book does not focus exclusively on homosexuality, however. Instead, the book acts as a broader guide to the biological basis of sexual orientation, and also discusses important gender differences that may influence sexual orientation.Less
This book presents a simple description of the biological mechanisms that are involved in the determination of sexual orientation in animals and also presumably in humans. Using scientific studies published over the last few decades, it argues that sexual orientation, both homosexual and heterosexual, is under the control of embryonic endocrine and genetic phenomena in which there is little room for individual choice. The book begins with animal studies of the hormonal and neural mechanisms that control the so-called instinctive behaviors and analyzes how this animal work may potentially apply to humans. The book does not focus exclusively on homosexuality, however. Instead, the book acts as a broader guide to the biological basis of sexual orientation, and also discusses important gender differences that may influence sexual orientation.
Helen E. Fisher, Heide D. Island, Marchalik Daniel, and Rich Jonathan
- Published in print:
- 2007
- Published Online:
- September 2007
- ISBN:
- 9780195320510
- eISBN:
- 9780199786800
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195320510.003.0013
- Subject:
- Psychology, Social Psychology
This chapter discusses investigations based on Fisher's hypothesis that among the myriad cultural and biological forces that contribute to mate choice, men and women tend to be attracted to potential ...
More
This chapter discusses investigations based on Fisher's hypothesis that among the myriad cultural and biological forces that contribute to mate choice, men and women tend to be attracted to potential mates who have a somewhat different genetic profile associated with different cognitive and behavioral traits, an unconscious attraction mechanism that enables mating partners to create more genetic variety in their offspring and co-parent their young with a wider array of parenting skills. The chapter concludes that the results of these pilot projects provide enough preliminary data to warrant further pursuit of this line of investigation into the biological mechanisms associated with mate choice.Less
This chapter discusses investigations based on Fisher's hypothesis that among the myriad cultural and biological forces that contribute to mate choice, men and women tend to be attracted to potential mates who have a somewhat different genetic profile associated with different cognitive and behavioral traits, an unconscious attraction mechanism that enables mating partners to create more genetic variety in their offspring and co-parent their young with a wider array of parenting skills. The chapter concludes that the results of these pilot projects provide enough preliminary data to warrant further pursuit of this line of investigation into the biological mechanisms associated with mate choice.
Domitilla Del Vecchio and Richard M. Murray
- Published in print:
- 2014
- Published Online:
- October 2017
- ISBN:
- 9780691161532
- eISBN:
- 9781400850501
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Princeton University Press
- DOI:
- 10.23943/princeton/9780691161532.003.0002
- Subject:
- Biology, Biochemistry / Molecular Biology
This chapter describes basic biological mechanisms in a way that can be represented by simple dynamical models. It begins with a discussion of the basic modeling formalisms that will be utilized to ...
More
This chapter describes basic biological mechanisms in a way that can be represented by simple dynamical models. It begins with a discussion of the basic modeling formalisms that will be utilized to model biomolecular feedback systems. The focus in this chapter (as well as the next) is on deterministic models using ordinary differential equations. Here, the chapter proceeds to study a number of core processes within the cell, providing different model-based descriptions of the dynamics that will be used in later chapters to analyze and design biomolecular systems. In this chapter, emphasis is placed on dynamics with time scales measured in seconds to hours and mean behavior averaged across a large number of molecules.Less
This chapter describes basic biological mechanisms in a way that can be represented by simple dynamical models. It begins with a discussion of the basic modeling formalisms that will be utilized to model biomolecular feedback systems. The focus in this chapter (as well as the next) is on deterministic models using ordinary differential equations. Here, the chapter proceeds to study a number of core processes within the cell, providing different model-based descriptions of the dynamics that will be used in later chapters to analyze and design biomolecular systems. In this chapter, emphasis is placed on dynamics with time scales measured in seconds to hours and mean behavior averaged across a large number of molecules.
Michael Marmot and Martin Bobak
- Published in print:
- 2000
- Published Online:
- October 2011
- ISBN:
- 9780198297413
- eISBN:
- 9780191685347
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198297413.003.0006
- Subject:
- Economics and Finance, Development, Growth, and Environmental
This chapter focuses on the effects of the social and economic changes during the transition period in the Central and Eastern European countries. It is established that before the transition era, ...
More
This chapter focuses on the effects of the social and economic changes during the transition period in the Central and Eastern European countries. It is established that before the transition era, there was a substantial gap between the life expectancy of the Western and Eastern Nations. The study also provides for the effects of the psychosocial aspects of the people on their biological structure, which in turn affects mortality rate. This chapter, focusing on the biological aspect of the people in these countries, includes the food intake and the biochemical composition of their bodies. This chapter also describes the mechanism of the psychosocial factor in affecting the way people live their lives mostly in their food intake. These psychosocial and biological mechanisms indirectly affect the mortality rate.Less
This chapter focuses on the effects of the social and economic changes during the transition period in the Central and Eastern European countries. It is established that before the transition era, there was a substantial gap between the life expectancy of the Western and Eastern Nations. The study also provides for the effects of the psychosocial aspects of the people on their biological structure, which in turn affects mortality rate. This chapter, focusing on the biological aspect of the people in these countries, includes the food intake and the biochemical composition of their bodies. This chapter also describes the mechanism of the psychosocial factor in affecting the way people live their lives mostly in their food intake. These psychosocial and biological mechanisms indirectly affect the mortality rate.
Wendy Berry Mendes and Jeremy Jamieson
- Published in print:
- 2011
- Published Online:
- January 2012
- ISBN:
- 9780199732449
- eISBN:
- 9780199918508
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199732449.003.0004
- Subject:
- Psychology, Social Psychology
In this chapter, we explore brain and body mechanisms that link the experience of stereotype threat to changes in cognitive and behavioral performance. We begin by identifying a model of causal ...
More
In this chapter, we explore brain and body mechanisms that link the experience of stereotype threat to changes in cognitive and behavioral performance. We begin by identifying a model of causal sequences of stereotype threat: psychological states associated with stereotype threat, neurobiological responses triggered by these psychological states, and cognitive and behavioral outcomes that are influenced by the neurobiological states. We explore this theoretical path analysis throughout the chapter, focusing on two broad psychological states often implicated in stereotype-threat processes: stress arousal and vigilance. To explore stress arousal as an explanation for stereotype threat performance effects, we highlight the biology underlying stress systems, stress typologies, and temporal trajectories of stress responses. We highlight how these neurobiological changes can influence cognitive and behavioral outcomes, and review existing stereotype threat research that explores these neurobiological responses. We then examine the broad category of vigilance in stereotype threat processes, and again highlight extant stereotype threat literature exploring neurobiological changes associated with vigilance. The intent of the chapter is to provide a neurobiological framework to assist stereotype threat researchers in identifying possible brain and body mechanisms that may be directly or indirectly implicated in performance changes engendered by stereotype threat.Less
In this chapter, we explore brain and body mechanisms that link the experience of stereotype threat to changes in cognitive and behavioral performance. We begin by identifying a model of causal sequences of stereotype threat: psychological states associated with stereotype threat, neurobiological responses triggered by these psychological states, and cognitive and behavioral outcomes that are influenced by the neurobiological states. We explore this theoretical path analysis throughout the chapter, focusing on two broad psychological states often implicated in stereotype-threat processes: stress arousal and vigilance. To explore stress arousal as an explanation for stereotype threat performance effects, we highlight the biology underlying stress systems, stress typologies, and temporal trajectories of stress responses. We highlight how these neurobiological changes can influence cognitive and behavioral outcomes, and review existing stereotype threat research that explores these neurobiological responses. We then examine the broad category of vigilance in stereotype threat processes, and again highlight extant stereotype threat literature exploring neurobiological changes associated with vigilance. The intent of the chapter is to provide a neurobiological framework to assist stereotype threat researchers in identifying possible brain and body mechanisms that may be directly or indirectly implicated in performance changes engendered by stereotype threat.
Jacques Balthazart
- Published in print:
- 2011
- Published Online:
- January 2012
- ISBN:
- 9780199838820
- eISBN:
- 9780199919512
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199838820.003.0029
- Subject:
- Neuroscience, Neuroendocrine and Autonomic, Development
Chapters 3 and 4 reviewed many of the principles highlighted in various animal models on the effects of sex steroids on the expression of reproductive behavior, on sexual differentiation during ...
More
Chapters 3 and 4 reviewed many of the principles highlighted in various animal models on the effects of sex steroids on the expression of reproductive behavior, on sexual differentiation during development, and on the sexual orientation. This chapter examines the available data suggesting that these mechanisms are still active in the human species. It reviews available evidence that demonstrates in many cases that the effects of steroid hormones that have been identified in animals are also present in humans, although they are sometimes partially masked by other mechanisms. It considers first the biological mechanisms of sex determination that are identical in animals and in humans. It then considers the current state of knowledge on the organizing and activating effects of sex steroids on physical and behavioral characteristics.Less
Chapters 3 and 4 reviewed many of the principles highlighted in various animal models on the effects of sex steroids on the expression of reproductive behavior, on sexual differentiation during development, and on the sexual orientation. This chapter examines the available data suggesting that these mechanisms are still active in the human species. It reviews available evidence that demonstrates in many cases that the effects of steroid hormones that have been identified in animals are also present in humans, although they are sometimes partially masked by other mechanisms. It considers first the biological mechanisms of sex determination that are identical in animals and in humans. It then considers the current state of knowledge on the organizing and activating effects of sex steroids on physical and behavioral characteristics.
I-MIN LEE and YUKO OGUMA
- Published in print:
- 2006
- Published Online:
- September 2009
- ISBN:
- 9780195149616
- eISBN:
- 9780199865062
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195149616.003.0023
- Subject:
- Public Health and Epidemiology, Public Health, Epidemiology
This chapter discusses epidemiologic studies of physical activity and cancer prevention. There is a large body of epidemiologic data on the relation between physical activity and the risk of ...
More
This chapter discusses epidemiologic studies of physical activity and cancer prevention. There is a large body of epidemiologic data on the relation between physical activity and the risk of developing cancer. Although the direct evidence on this relation comes only from observational studies, randomized clinical trials have provided indirect evidence by examining the association of physical activity with markers of cancer risk, such as body weight and hormone levels. Moreover, several plausible biological mechanisms support the hypothesis that higher levels of physical activity decrease the incidence of various cancers. The data are clearest for colon and breast cancer, with case-control and cohort studies supporting a moderate, inverse relation between physical activity and the development of these cancers.Less
This chapter discusses epidemiologic studies of physical activity and cancer prevention. There is a large body of epidemiologic data on the relation between physical activity and the risk of developing cancer. Although the direct evidence on this relation comes only from observational studies, randomized clinical trials have provided indirect evidence by examining the association of physical activity with markers of cancer risk, such as body weight and hormone levels. Moreover, several plausible biological mechanisms support the hypothesis that higher levels of physical activity decrease the incidence of various cancers. The data are clearest for colon and breast cancer, with case-control and cohort studies supporting a moderate, inverse relation between physical activity and the development of these cancers.
Lisa K. Son and Nate Kornell
- Published in print:
- 2005
- Published Online:
- March 2012
- ISBN:
- 9780195161564
- eISBN:
- 9780199848386
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195161564.003.0012
- Subject:
- Psychology, Cognitive Psychology
The chapter shows a paradigm that has the potential to reveal true metacognition in animals. The main controversies surrounding Smith's paradigm centered on whether what he referred to as ...
More
The chapter shows a paradigm that has the potential to reveal true metacognition in animals. The main controversies surrounding Smith's paradigm centered on whether what he referred to as metacognitive judgments were simply judgments of extant stimuli that are present when the subject responds uncertain. By using a modified version of the match-to-sample paradigm, this chapter shows that the star monkey in the experiment was able to make valid metacognitive judgments. The chapter outlines a framework that makes tests for memory awareness in nonhumans possible and describes some of the behaviors of nonhuman behavior that are difficult to explain. There are both conceptual and experimental issues regarding the validity of the concept of memory awareness in nonhuman animals. It will always remain a matter of conjecture whether monkeys experience conscious states of knowing like humans. There is a need to put aside introspection, treat self-reflection as a biological mechanism and focus on what self-reflect.Less
The chapter shows a paradigm that has the potential to reveal true metacognition in animals. The main controversies surrounding Smith's paradigm centered on whether what he referred to as metacognitive judgments were simply judgments of extant stimuli that are present when the subject responds uncertain. By using a modified version of the match-to-sample paradigm, this chapter shows that the star monkey in the experiment was able to make valid metacognitive judgments. The chapter outlines a framework that makes tests for memory awareness in nonhumans possible and describes some of the behaviors of nonhuman behavior that are difficult to explain. There are both conceptual and experimental issues regarding the validity of the concept of memory awareness in nonhuman animals. It will always remain a matter of conjecture whether monkeys experience conscious states of knowing like humans. There is a need to put aside introspection, treat self-reflection as a biological mechanism and focus on what self-reflect.
Allan V. Horwitz
- Published in print:
- 2016
- Published Online:
- September 2016
- ISBN:
- 9780190603243
- eISBN:
- 9780190603281
- Item type:
- book
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780190603243.001.0001
- Subject:
- Sociology, Social Theory
Since the emergence of Western philosophy and science among the Classical Greeks, debates have raged over the relative significance of biology and culture on an individual’s behavior. Today, recent ...
More
Since the emergence of Western philosophy and science among the Classical Greeks, debates have raged over the relative significance of biology and culture on an individual’s behavior. Today, recent advances in genetics and biological science have pushed many scholars past the tired nature versus nurture debate to examine the various ways in which the natural and the social interact to influence human behavior. This brings a fresh approach to this emerging perspective. Rather than try to solve these issues universally, the text demonstrates that both social and biological mechanisms have varying degrees of influence in different situations. Through case studies of human universals such as incest aversion, fear, appetite, grief, and sex, the book first discusses the extreme instances in which biology determines behavior, in which culture dominates, and in which culture overrides basic biological instincts. It then details the variety of ways in which genes and environments interact—for instance, the primal drive to eat and store calories when food supplies were scarce and behavioral patterns in a society in which food is abundant and obesity is stigmatized. Now that it is often easier to change our biology rather than our culture, an understanding of which behaviors and traits are simply normal or abnormal, and which are pathological or necessitate treatment, is more important than ever.Less
Since the emergence of Western philosophy and science among the Classical Greeks, debates have raged over the relative significance of biology and culture on an individual’s behavior. Today, recent advances in genetics and biological science have pushed many scholars past the tired nature versus nurture debate to examine the various ways in which the natural and the social interact to influence human behavior. This brings a fresh approach to this emerging perspective. Rather than try to solve these issues universally, the text demonstrates that both social and biological mechanisms have varying degrees of influence in different situations. Through case studies of human universals such as incest aversion, fear, appetite, grief, and sex, the book first discusses the extreme instances in which biology determines behavior, in which culture dominates, and in which culture overrides basic biological instincts. It then details the variety of ways in which genes and environments interact—for instance, the primal drive to eat and store calories when food supplies were scarce and behavioral patterns in a society in which food is abundant and obesity is stigmatized. Now that it is often easier to change our biology rather than our culture, an understanding of which behaviors and traits are simply normal or abnormal, and which are pathological or necessitate treatment, is more important than ever.
Fabrizio Benedetti
- Published in print:
- 2014
- Published Online:
- October 2014
- ISBN:
- 9780198705086
- eISBN:
- 9780191789151
- Item type:
- book
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198705086.001.0001
- Subject:
- Neuroscience, Behavioral Neuroscience, Molecular and Cellular Systems
One of the most widespread words in medicine is placebo and placebo effect, although it is not always clear what it means exactly. Recent progress in biomedical research has allowed a better ...
More
One of the most widespread words in medicine is placebo and placebo effect, although it is not always clear what it means exactly. Recent progress in biomedical research has allowed a better clarification of the placebo effect. This is an active psychobiological phenomenon which takes place in the patient’s brain and that is capable of influencing both the course of a disease and the response to a therapy. The psychosocial context around the patient is crucial to placebo effects, for example, the doctor’s words and attitudes, and this may have a profound impact on the patient’s brain which, in turn, may affect several physiological functions of the body. This book emphasizes that there is not a single placebo effect but many, and critically reviews them in different medical conditions, such as pain, neurological disorders, psychiatric and behavioral disorders, immune and endocrine systems, cardiovascular and respiratory systems, gastrointestinal and genitourinary disorders, as well as some special conditions, such as oncology, surgery, sports medicine, and acupuncture.Less
One of the most widespread words in medicine is placebo and placebo effect, although it is not always clear what it means exactly. Recent progress in biomedical research has allowed a better clarification of the placebo effect. This is an active psychobiological phenomenon which takes place in the patient’s brain and that is capable of influencing both the course of a disease and the response to a therapy. The psychosocial context around the patient is crucial to placebo effects, for example, the doctor’s words and attitudes, and this may have a profound impact on the patient’s brain which, in turn, may affect several physiological functions of the body. This book emphasizes that there is not a single placebo effect but many, and critically reviews them in different medical conditions, such as pain, neurological disorders, psychiatric and behavioral disorders, immune and endocrine systems, cardiovascular and respiratory systems, gastrointestinal and genitourinary disorders, as well as some special conditions, such as oncology, surgery, sports medicine, and acupuncture.
Pablo A. Iglesias and Brian P. Ingalls (eds)
- Published in print:
- 2009
- Published Online:
- August 2013
- ISBN:
- 9780262013345
- eISBN:
- 9780262258906
- Item type:
- book
- Publisher:
- The MIT Press
- DOI:
- 10.7551/mitpress/9780262013345.001.0001
- Subject:
- Biology, Biomathematics / Statistics and Data Analysis / Complexity Studies
Issues of regulation and control are central to the study of biological and biochemical systems. Thus it is not surprising that the tools of feedback control theory—engineering techniques developed ...
More
Issues of regulation and control are central to the study of biological and biochemical systems. Thus it is not surprising that the tools of feedback control theory—engineering techniques developed to design and analyze self-regulating systems—have proven useful in the study of these biological mechanisms. Such interdisciplinary work requires knowledge of the results, tools, and techniques of another discipline, as well as an understanding of the culture of an unfamiliar research community. This book attempts to bridge the gap between disciplines by presenting applications of systems and control theory to cell biology that range from surveys of established material to descriptions of new developments in the field. The first chapter offers a primer on concepts from dynamical systems and control theory, which allows the life scientist with no background in control theory to understand the concepts presented in the rest of the book. Following the introduction of ordinary differential equation-based modeling in the first chapter, the second and third chapters discuss alternative modeling frameworks. The remaining chapters sample a variety of applications, considering such topics as quantitative measures of dynamic behavior, modularity, stoichiometry, robust control techniques, and network identification.Less
Issues of regulation and control are central to the study of biological and biochemical systems. Thus it is not surprising that the tools of feedback control theory—engineering techniques developed to design and analyze self-regulating systems—have proven useful in the study of these biological mechanisms. Such interdisciplinary work requires knowledge of the results, tools, and techniques of another discipline, as well as an understanding of the culture of an unfamiliar research community. This book attempts to bridge the gap between disciplines by presenting applications of systems and control theory to cell biology that range from surveys of established material to descriptions of new developments in the field. The first chapter offers a primer on concepts from dynamical systems and control theory, which allows the life scientist with no background in control theory to understand the concepts presented in the rest of the book. Following the introduction of ordinary differential equation-based modeling in the first chapter, the second and third chapters discuss alternative modeling frameworks. The remaining chapters sample a variety of applications, considering such topics as quantitative measures of dynamic behavior, modularity, stoichiometry, robust control techniques, and network identification.
Carlos M. Herrera
- Published in print:
- 2009
- Published Online:
- February 2013
- ISBN:
- 9780226327938
- eISBN:
- 9780226327952
- Item type:
- book
- Publisher:
- University of Chicago Press
- DOI:
- 10.7208/chicago/9780226327952.001.0001
- Subject:
- Biology, Evolutionary Biology / Genetics
The main purpose of this book is to present the message that when one looks at subindividual variability, a feature that was either unnoticed or taken as a nuisance turns into an opportunity for ...
More
The main purpose of this book is to present the message that when one looks at subindividual variability, a feature that was either unnoticed or taken as a nuisance turns into an opportunity for framing new questions, identifying novel biological mechanisms linking sessile plants and mobile choosy animals, and deepening the understanding of the ecological and evolutionary factors involved in plant–animal interactions. The chapters focus on what features vary among reiterated organs of the same plant, what the magnitude of such variation is in the different types of organs, and how it is temporally and spatially organized. A thesis is being developed that the multiplicity of homologous structures arising from plant modularity gives rise to a subindividual level of phenotypic differences among organs of the same plant involving a constellation of phenotypic traits, differences whose quantitative importance is often similar or even greater than that of phenotypic differences among individual means. The book attempts to highlight the existence of phenotypic variation at the subindividual scale that can have diverse ecological implications for the interaction between plants and the animals who use reiterated organs as food, including herbivores, flower visitors, frugivores, and seed predators.Less
The main purpose of this book is to present the message that when one looks at subindividual variability, a feature that was either unnoticed or taken as a nuisance turns into an opportunity for framing new questions, identifying novel biological mechanisms linking sessile plants and mobile choosy animals, and deepening the understanding of the ecological and evolutionary factors involved in plant–animal interactions. The chapters focus on what features vary among reiterated organs of the same plant, what the magnitude of such variation is in the different types of organs, and how it is temporally and spatially organized. A thesis is being developed that the multiplicity of homologous structures arising from plant modularity gives rise to a subindividual level of phenotypic differences among organs of the same plant involving a constellation of phenotypic traits, differences whose quantitative importance is often similar or even greater than that of phenotypic differences among individual means. The book attempts to highlight the existence of phenotypic variation at the subindividual scale that can have diverse ecological implications for the interaction between plants and the animals who use reiterated organs as food, including herbivores, flower visitors, frugivores, and seed predators.
