Liam Murphy and Thomas Nagel
- Published in print:
- 2002
- Published Online:
- November 2003
- ISBN:
- 9780195150162
- eISBN:
- 9780199833924
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/0195150163.003.0002
- Subject:
- Political Science, Political Theory
Traditional analyses of tax justice demand that the distribution of tax burdens satisfy criteria of vertical and horizontal equity–like cases should be treated alike and relevantly different cases ...
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Traditional analyses of tax justice demand that the distribution of tax burdens satisfy criteria of vertical and horizontal equity–like cases should be treated alike and relevantly different cases should be treated differently. Various criteria for relevant differences have been proposed, drawing on ideas such as ability to pay and taxation in proportion to benefit. All these analyses suffer from the fundamental flaw of treating pretax income as a morally significant baseline. This mistake can partly be traced to a prevailing “everyday libertarianism” according to which our legal property rights simply protect what we are independently morally entitled to; this view is incoherent.Less
Traditional analyses of tax justice demand that the distribution of tax burdens satisfy criteria of vertical and horizontal equity–like cases should be treated alike and relevantly different cases should be treated differently. Various criteria for relevant differences have been proposed, drawing on ideas such as ability to pay and taxation in proportion to benefit. All these analyses suffer from the fundamental flaw of treating pretax income as a morally significant baseline. This mistake can partly be traced to a prevailing “everyday libertarianism” according to which our legal property rights simply protect what we are independently morally entitled to; this view is incoherent.
Charles R. C. Sheppard, Simon K. Davy, and Graham M. Pilling
- Published in print:
- 2009
- Published Online:
- September 2009
- ISBN:
- 9780198566359
- eISBN:
- 9780191713934
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198566359.003.0010
- Subject:
- Biology, Biodiversity / Conservation Biology, Aquatic Biology
Climate change and direct, local impacts are reducing the ability of reefs to support rich ecosystems, including those of people dependent upon them. Adaptation by reefs has been suggested as being ...
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Climate change and direct, local impacts are reducing the ability of reefs to support rich ecosystems, including those of people dependent upon them. Adaptation by reefs has been suggested as being possible, but is unlikely to be sufficient to ensure their survival after a few decades. Human population increase is remorseless and with it comes increasing demand on reef resources. Protected area management and better management of key species holds promise as one method for ensuring reef survival, as does a need to obtain proper monetory values of reefs and their species and of the cost incurred in their loss. Reefs are connected in terms of larval and species flows, so broad scale management of networks of marine protected areas is also needed to ensure the survival of reefs, as is a more intelligent selection of areas for protection which show greatest resilience and ability to recover from impacts.Less
Climate change and direct, local impacts are reducing the ability of reefs to support rich ecosystems, including those of people dependent upon them. Adaptation by reefs has been suggested as being possible, but is unlikely to be sufficient to ensure their survival after a few decades. Human population increase is remorseless and with it comes increasing demand on reef resources. Protected area management and better management of key species holds promise as one method for ensuring reef survival, as does a need to obtain proper monetory values of reefs and their species and of the cost incurred in their loss. Reefs are connected in terms of larval and species flows, so broad scale management of networks of marine protected areas is also needed to ensure the survival of reefs, as is a more intelligent selection of areas for protection which show greatest resilience and ability to recover from impacts.
Helmuth Spieler
- Published in print:
- 2005
- Published Online:
- September 2007
- ISBN:
- 9780198527848
- eISBN:
- 9780191713248
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198527848.003.0004
- Subject:
- Physics, Particle Physics / Astrophysics / Cosmology
This chapter discusses signal processing for pulsed signals. Optimization of signal-to-noise ratio is analyzed under the constraints of signal rate capability. General properties of pulse signal ...
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This chapter discusses signal processing for pulsed signals. Optimization of signal-to-noise ratio is analyzed under the constraints of signal rate capability. General properties of pulse signal processing (i.e., pulse shaping) are explained using simple circuits (CR-RC shapers), and the effects on both signal amplitude and noise are discussed. Individual noise contributions from the sensor and associated input circuitry, and overall noise optimization are analyzed. Practical examples using strip detectors and photodiodes are presented. Noise analysis in the time domain is described and applied to a detailed discussion of correlated double sampling. Threshold discriminator (binary) systems are also affected by noise and the rate due to noise hits is explained and calculated. After a discussion of baseline restoration, tail cancellation, and bipolar vs. unipolar shaping, the requirements in timing measurements are analyzed. Properties of simple threshold discriminators, zero crossing timing, and constant fraction timing are discussed.Less
This chapter discusses signal processing for pulsed signals. Optimization of signal-to-noise ratio is analyzed under the constraints of signal rate capability. General properties of pulse signal processing (i.e., pulse shaping) are explained using simple circuits (CR-RC shapers), and the effects on both signal amplitude and noise are discussed. Individual noise contributions from the sensor and associated input circuitry, and overall noise optimization are analyzed. Practical examples using strip detectors and photodiodes are presented. Noise analysis in the time domain is described and applied to a detailed discussion of correlated double sampling. Threshold discriminator (binary) systems are also affected by noise and the rate due to noise hits is explained and calculated. After a discussion of baseline restoration, tail cancellation, and bipolar vs. unipolar shaping, the requirements in timing measurements are analyzed. Properties of simple threshold discriminators, zero crossing timing, and constant fraction timing are discussed.
Timothy Besley
- Published in print:
- 2007
- Published Online:
- October 2011
- ISBN:
- 9780199283910
- eISBN:
- 9780191700279
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199283910.003.0003
- Subject:
- Economics and Finance, Public and Welfare
This chapter considers political agency models, which explore the consequences of limited information in politics. It develops a canonical model which is then used to discuss an array of issues that ...
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This chapter considers political agency models, which explore the consequences of limited information in politics. It develops a canonical model which is then used to discuss an array of issues that arise in such models. As well as providing an introduction to the literature, the chapter throws up a variety of issues that have not been fully understood to date and merit further work. It also emphasises the empirical potential of these models in explaining real world policy choices. At the heart of the models is the notion of political accountability — a frequently used concept that often lacks precise usage. The political agency model is an ideal vehicle for thinking about this idea and exploring how accountability works in practice.Less
This chapter considers political agency models, which explore the consequences of limited information in politics. It develops a canonical model which is then used to discuss an array of issues that arise in such models. As well as providing an introduction to the literature, the chapter throws up a variety of issues that have not been fully understood to date and merit further work. It also emphasises the empirical potential of these models in explaining real world policy choices. At the heart of the models is the notion of political accountability — a frequently used concept that often lacks precise usage. The political agency model is an ideal vehicle for thinking about this idea and exploring how accountability works in practice.
Shelly Kagan
- Published in print:
- 2012
- Published Online:
- January 2013
- ISBN:
- 9780199895595
- eISBN:
- 9780199980093
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199895595.003.0011
- Subject:
- Philosophy, Moral Philosophy
This chapter explains how the Y gap view can be extended to cover cases that involve groups of three or more. It begins with a discussion of the simultaneous baseline approach and the pairwise ...
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This chapter explains how the Y gap view can be extended to cover cases that involve groups of three or more. It begins with a discussion of the simultaneous baseline approach and the pairwise approach. It then focuses on the claim that the intrinsic value of satisfying comparative desert increases with the group size. It also takes a look at the adjustments that can be made to the graphs and reviews the concept of variable steepness.Less
This chapter explains how the Y gap view can be extended to cover cases that involve groups of three or more. It begins with a discussion of the simultaneous baseline approach and the pairwise approach. It then focuses on the claim that the intrinsic value of satisfying comparative desert increases with the group size. It also takes a look at the adjustments that can be made to the graphs and reviews the concept of variable steepness.
Sam Scott
- Published in print:
- 2017
- Published Online:
- September 2017
- ISBN:
- 9781447322030
- eISBN:
- 9781447322054
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Policy Press
- DOI:
- 10.1332/policypress/9781447322030.003.0018
- Subject:
- Political Science, Public Policy
This chapter draws together the main conclusions from the preceding eight chapters of the book. In the process, it identifies four issues with the dominant legal perspective around problems at/with ...
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This chapter draws together the main conclusions from the preceding eight chapters of the book. In the process, it identifies four issues with the dominant legal perspective around problems at/with work. First, even when legal baselines exist to purportedly protect workers from exploitation and harm they are rarely invoked and are ill-equipped to enable victims to take on (often powerful) state and corporate interests. Second, legal frameworks, especially those based on criminal law, tend to direct attention towards extreme labour market abuse. The problem of work-based exploitation and harm is, therefore, defined in a narrow way. Third, the legal system is predisposed towards the identification of individual criminal actors and is unsuited to the apportioning of blame at an institutional or structural level. Finally, legal frameworks imply that the solution to exploitation and harm lies within a law enforcement approach that first discourages and then criminalises abusive employment relationships. A social harm perspective is liberating in this respect because, while acknowledging the value of criminalising malpractice, solutions beyond criminology are seen as equally, and often more, important.Less
This chapter draws together the main conclusions from the preceding eight chapters of the book. In the process, it identifies four issues with the dominant legal perspective around problems at/with work. First, even when legal baselines exist to purportedly protect workers from exploitation and harm they are rarely invoked and are ill-equipped to enable victims to take on (often powerful) state and corporate interests. Second, legal frameworks, especially those based on criminal law, tend to direct attention towards extreme labour market abuse. The problem of work-based exploitation and harm is, therefore, defined in a narrow way. Third, the legal system is predisposed towards the identification of individual criminal actors and is unsuited to the apportioning of blame at an institutional or structural level. Finally, legal frameworks imply that the solution to exploitation and harm lies within a law enforcement approach that first discourages and then criminalises abusive employment relationships. A social harm perspective is liberating in this respect because, while acknowledging the value of criminalising malpractice, solutions beyond criminology are seen as equally, and often more, important.
Terry Barker, Christian Lutz, Bernd Meyer, Hector Pollitt, and Stefan Speck
- Published in print:
- 2011
- Published Online:
- May 2011
- ISBN:
- 9780199584505
- eISBN:
- 9780191725012
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199584505.003.0009
- Subject:
- Economics and Finance, Macro- and Monetary Economics
This chapter describes the modelling of an ETR for Europe, using the models described in Chapter 8. The chapter starts by describing the role of the baseline in the analysis and why it is important ...
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This chapter describes the modelling of an ETR for Europe, using the models described in Chapter 8. The chapter starts by describing the role of the baseline in the analysis and why it is important to choose an appropriate baseline. It then describes the main scenarios undertaken, with a discussion of the taxes implemented and the relationship between the EU ETS and the carbon tax applied to the rest of the economy, the role of revenue recycling in the different scenarios, and spending of some of the tax revenues on eco-innovation. The major part of the chapter describes the results of the modelling, including: aggregate energy/environment results (i.e. reduction in emissions and energy demand); aggregate economic results; sectoral energy/environment results; sectoral economic results.Less
This chapter describes the modelling of an ETR for Europe, using the models described in Chapter 8. The chapter starts by describing the role of the baseline in the analysis and why it is important to choose an appropriate baseline. It then describes the main scenarios undertaken, with a discussion of the taxes implemented and the relationship between the EU ETS and the carbon tax applied to the rest of the economy, the role of revenue recycling in the different scenarios, and spending of some of the tax revenues on eco-innovation. The major part of the chapter describes the results of the modelling, including: aggregate energy/environment results (i.e. reduction in emissions and energy demand); aggregate economic results; sectoral energy/environment results; sectoral economic results.
Judith D. Singer and John B. Willett
- Published in print:
- 2003
- Published Online:
- September 2009
- ISBN:
- 9780195152968
- eISBN:
- 9780199864980
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195152968.003.0015
- Subject:
- Public Health and Epidemiology, Public Health, Epidemiology
This chapter begins by describing how to include time-varying predictors in the Cox regression model. It then introduces two methods for relaxing the proportionality assumption. Section 15.2 presents ...
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This chapter begins by describing how to include time-varying predictors in the Cox regression model. It then introduces two methods for relaxing the proportionality assumption. Section 15.2 presents the stratified Cox regression model, which stipulates that while the effects of each predictor are identical across strata, the baseline hazard functions can differ. Section 15.3 presents an alternative strategy that closely mirrors the approach used in discrete time: the inclusion of interactions with time as predictors in the model. Section 15.4 introduces a range of regression diagnostics useful for examining the underlying assumptions of the Cox model. Section 15.5 discusses what to do when modeling “competing risks”—multiple events that compete to terminate an individual's lifetime. Section 15.6 concludes by describing what to do when you have not observed the beginning of time for everyone in your sample and there are so-called late entrants to the risk set.Less
This chapter begins by describing how to include time-varying predictors in the Cox regression model. It then introduces two methods for relaxing the proportionality assumption. Section 15.2 presents the stratified Cox regression model, which stipulates that while the effects of each predictor are identical across strata, the baseline hazard functions can differ. Section 15.3 presents an alternative strategy that closely mirrors the approach used in discrete time: the inclusion of interactions with time as predictors in the model. Section 15.4 introduces a range of regression diagnostics useful for examining the underlying assumptions of the Cox model. Section 15.5 discusses what to do when modeling “competing risks”—multiple events that compete to terminate an individual's lifetime. Section 15.6 concludes by describing what to do when you have not observed the beginning of time for everyone in your sample and there are so-called late entrants to the risk set.
Irus Braverman
- Published in print:
- 2018
- Published Online:
- May 2019
- ISBN:
- 9780520298842
- eISBN:
- 9780520970830
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- University of California Press
- DOI:
- 10.1525/california/9780520298842.003.0005
- Subject:
- Environmental Science, Environmental Studies
Chapter 2, ““And Then We Wept”: Coral Death on Record,” documents the despair side of the pendulum as it contemplates the existing modes and technologies for recording coral bleaching and death. ...
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Chapter 2, ““And Then We Wept”: Coral Death on Record,” documents the despair side of the pendulum as it contemplates the existing modes and technologies for recording coral bleaching and death. Here, the trajectory is typically of devastation and gloom, as the numbers are depressing at best. Much of the chapter focuses on the third global bleaching event at the Great Barrier Reef, documenting how scientists have both recorded and narrated this event to themselves and to the general public. I examine the role of monitoring in particular, considering whether enhancing scientific knowledge about corals through monitoring is an act of hope, in that it supports conservation action, or one of despair, as it stifles such action and masks the resulting inaction with more and more monitoring. Finally, the chapter shows that even in the world of numbers and maps, “bright spots” and optimistic indexes still rear their more hopeful heads.Less
Chapter 2, ““And Then We Wept”: Coral Death on Record,” documents the despair side of the pendulum as it contemplates the existing modes and technologies for recording coral bleaching and death. Here, the trajectory is typically of devastation and gloom, as the numbers are depressing at best. Much of the chapter focuses on the third global bleaching event at the Great Barrier Reef, documenting how scientists have both recorded and narrated this event to themselves and to the general public. I examine the role of monitoring in particular, considering whether enhancing scientific knowledge about corals through monitoring is an act of hope, in that it supports conservation action, or one of despair, as it stifles such action and masks the resulting inaction with more and more monitoring. Finally, the chapter shows that even in the world of numbers and maps, “bright spots” and optimistic indexes still rear their more hopeful heads.
Deborah A. Rockman
- Published in print:
- 2000
- Published Online:
- November 2020
- ISBN:
- 9780195130799
- eISBN:
- 9780197561447
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/oso/9780195130799.003.0008
- Subject:
- Education, Teaching of a Specific Subject
Perspective drawing is a system for creating a two-dimensional illusion of a three-dimensional subject or three-dimensional space. Information, whether observed ...
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Perspective drawing is a system for creating a two-dimensional illusion of a three-dimensional subject or three-dimensional space. Information, whether observed (empirically based) or imagined (theoretically based), is translated into a language or system that allows three-dimensional forms and space to be illusionistically represented on a two-dimensional surface. Although Brunelleschi is credited with the discovery or creation of perspective theory during the Renaissance in Italy, it is Albrecht Dürer, a German artist, who is best known for his exploration of perspective theory in his prints and drawings. Perspective theory is often separated into two parts: TECHNICAL OR MECHANICAL PERSPECTIVE,which is based on systems and geometry and is the primary focus of this chapter; and FREEHAND PERSPECTIVE, which is based on perception and observation of forms in space and is a more intuitive exploration of perspective theory. Freehand perspective relies to a significant degree on the process of sighting to judge the rate of convergence, depth, angle, etc. Technical or mechanical perspective utilizes drafting tools such as T-squares, compasses, and triangles, while freehand perspective generally explores perspective principles without the use of technical tools. While it is useful to study perspective in its most precise form with the aid of drafting tools and a simple straight-edge, it is also useful to explore these same principles in a purely freehand fashion, which allows for a more relaxed application of perspective principles. In studying perspective, it also becomes important to make a distinction between linear perspective and atmospheric perspective. LINEAR PERSPECTIVE addresses how the shapes, edges, and sizes of objects change in appearance when seen from different positions relative to the observer—off to one side, directly in front, close or far away, above or below, or any number of infinite variations. ATMOSPHERIC PERSPECTIVE describes other characteristics seen in objects that are some distance from the observer. A veil of atmospheric haze affects and decreases clarity, contrast, detail, and color. Atmospheric perspective, which is not mathematically or geometrically based, is a powerful complement to linear perspective, and when used together the illusion of three-dimensionality and space can be powerful.
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Perspective drawing is a system for creating a two-dimensional illusion of a three-dimensional subject or three-dimensional space. Information, whether observed (empirically based) or imagined (theoretically based), is translated into a language or system that allows three-dimensional forms and space to be illusionistically represented on a two-dimensional surface. Although Brunelleschi is credited with the discovery or creation of perspective theory during the Renaissance in Italy, it is Albrecht Dürer, a German artist, who is best known for his exploration of perspective theory in his prints and drawings. Perspective theory is often separated into two parts: TECHNICAL OR MECHANICAL PERSPECTIVE,which is based on systems and geometry and is the primary focus of this chapter; and FREEHAND PERSPECTIVE, which is based on perception and observation of forms in space and is a more intuitive exploration of perspective theory. Freehand perspective relies to a significant degree on the process of sighting to judge the rate of convergence, depth, angle, etc. Technical or mechanical perspective utilizes drafting tools such as T-squares, compasses, and triangles, while freehand perspective generally explores perspective principles without the use of technical tools. While it is useful to study perspective in its most precise form with the aid of drafting tools and a simple straight-edge, it is also useful to explore these same principles in a purely freehand fashion, which allows for a more relaxed application of perspective principles. In studying perspective, it also becomes important to make a distinction between linear perspective and atmospheric perspective. LINEAR PERSPECTIVE addresses how the shapes, edges, and sizes of objects change in appearance when seen from different positions relative to the observer—off to one side, directly in front, close or far away, above or below, or any number of infinite variations. ATMOSPHERIC PERSPECTIVE describes other characteristics seen in objects that are some distance from the observer. A veil of atmospheric haze affects and decreases clarity, contrast, detail, and color. Atmospheric perspective, which is not mathematically or geometrically based, is a powerful complement to linear perspective, and when used together the illusion of three-dimensionality and space can be powerful.
Kate Purcell
- Published in print:
- 2019
- Published Online:
- March 2020
- ISBN:
- 9780198743644
- eISBN:
- 9780191803796
- Item type:
- book
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/oso/9780198743644.001.0001
- Subject:
- Law, Public International Law, Environmental and Energy Law
This book examines the implications of geographical change for maritime jurisdiction under the law of the sea. In a multistranded intervention, it analyses and critiques both the explicit and ...
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This book examines the implications of geographical change for maritime jurisdiction under the law of the sea. In a multistranded intervention, it analyses and critiques both the explicit and implicit reasoning underpinning the familiar claim that maritime limits are, as a general rule, ambulatory—shifting with changes to the coast. The book examines and challenges related and analogous arguments regarding the implications of geographical change for maritime boundaries. It attempts to clarify the principles and presumptions bearing upon an assessment of the fluidity of boundaries generally. Finally, it considers and contests claims that entitlement to maritime space will be lost if the features generating such entitlement are submerged by rising seas. This analysis is extended in a comment on the implications of a loss of habitable land and large-scale population displacement for continuing territorial sovereignty and statehood. The in-depth analysis of the existing law in this book offers new answers to the question of the implications of geographical change for entitlement to maritime space, maritime limits, and international maritime boundaries. It also helps to clarify the circumstances in which either or both territorial sovereignty and statehood may be lost, explaining why the impacts of climate change upon land and population will not automatically have this result—even if the affected State is no longer ‘effective’ as a State or territorial sovereign. The book includes an analysis of the principle of intertemporal law that suggests a useful framework for considering questions of stability and change in international law more broadly.Less
This book examines the implications of geographical change for maritime jurisdiction under the law of the sea. In a multistranded intervention, it analyses and critiques both the explicit and implicit reasoning underpinning the familiar claim that maritime limits are, as a general rule, ambulatory—shifting with changes to the coast. The book examines and challenges related and analogous arguments regarding the implications of geographical change for maritime boundaries. It attempts to clarify the principles and presumptions bearing upon an assessment of the fluidity of boundaries generally. Finally, it considers and contests claims that entitlement to maritime space will be lost if the features generating such entitlement are submerged by rising seas. This analysis is extended in a comment on the implications of a loss of habitable land and large-scale population displacement for continuing territorial sovereignty and statehood. The in-depth analysis of the existing law in this book offers new answers to the question of the implications of geographical change for entitlement to maritime space, maritime limits, and international maritime boundaries. It also helps to clarify the circumstances in which either or both territorial sovereignty and statehood may be lost, explaining why the impacts of climate change upon land and population will not automatically have this result—even if the affected State is no longer ‘effective’ as a State or territorial sovereign. The book includes an analysis of the principle of intertemporal law that suggests a useful framework for considering questions of stability and change in international law more broadly.
H. Randy Gimblett and Merton T. Richards
- Published in print:
- 2002
- Published Online:
- November 2020
- ISBN:
- 9780195143362
- eISBN:
- 9780197561812
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/oso/9780195143362.003.0016
- Subject:
- Computer Science, Mathematical Theory of Computation
Ecosystem management, in the ideal sense, gives appropriate consideration to the complex and interdependent ecological and social systems that comprise forestlands. ...
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Ecosystem management, in the ideal sense, gives appropriate consideration to the complex and interdependent ecological and social systems that comprise forestlands. One prominent and growing arena where ecological and social systems interact is in the recreational use of wildlands. Recreational uses of forestlands are among an extensive array of commodities and amenities that are increasingly demanded of forest managers. An in-depth understanding of the relationships between recreational and other important uses is essential to effective ecosystem management. Within the human dimension of ecosystem management, recreation and amenity uses of forestlands and the associated benefits of those uses, constitute an important component of management decisions. Forestland recreation is a special form of leisure behavior not only because it takes place outdoors, but because it depends upon a “natural” setting. Particular environmental settings are crucial to the fulfillment of forest recreation goals, because the recreationist seeks meaningful and satisfying experiences rather than simply engagement in activities. Importantly, wildland recreation takes place in settings that result from management actions of one form or another, whether the management objective is recreation opportunity, wildlife habitat improvement, or timber production, among others. The recreation opportunity spectrum (ROS) provides a conceptual framework for relating opportunities for particular behaviors and experiences to specific settings. The ROS argues that recreator's pursuits of certain activities in specific settings reveals their demand for experiences that are satisfying and that may give long-term benefits. The ROS framework describes a spectrum of recreation opportunity classes that relate a range of recreation experiences to an array of possible settings and activities. Setting structure is composed of three components: an ecological component, a social component, and a managerial component. The ecological component comprises the physical-biological conditions of the setting. These are typically delineated by the relative remoteness of the setting, its size, and evidence of human impact (number and condition of trails, structures, or roads, alteration of vegetation, etc.). The social component is typically defined by the number of users at one time (density) in the setting, delineated by the number of encounters or sightings a recreation party has with others.
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Ecosystem management, in the ideal sense, gives appropriate consideration to the complex and interdependent ecological and social systems that comprise forestlands. One prominent and growing arena where ecological and social systems interact is in the recreational use of wildlands. Recreational uses of forestlands are among an extensive array of commodities and amenities that are increasingly demanded of forest managers. An in-depth understanding of the relationships between recreational and other important uses is essential to effective ecosystem management. Within the human dimension of ecosystem management, recreation and amenity uses of forestlands and the associated benefits of those uses, constitute an important component of management decisions. Forestland recreation is a special form of leisure behavior not only because it takes place outdoors, but because it depends upon a “natural” setting. Particular environmental settings are crucial to the fulfillment of forest recreation goals, because the recreationist seeks meaningful and satisfying experiences rather than simply engagement in activities. Importantly, wildland recreation takes place in settings that result from management actions of one form or another, whether the management objective is recreation opportunity, wildlife habitat improvement, or timber production, among others. The recreation opportunity spectrum (ROS) provides a conceptual framework for relating opportunities for particular behaviors and experiences to specific settings. The ROS argues that recreator's pursuits of certain activities in specific settings reveals their demand for experiences that are satisfying and that may give long-term benefits. The ROS framework describes a spectrum of recreation opportunity classes that relate a range of recreation experiences to an array of possible settings and activities. Setting structure is composed of three components: an ecological component, a social component, and a managerial component. The ecological component comprises the physical-biological conditions of the setting. These are typically delineated by the relative remoteness of the setting, its size, and evidence of human impact (number and condition of trails, structures, or roads, alteration of vegetation, etc.). The social component is typically defined by the number of users at one time (density) in the setting, delineated by the number of encounters or sightings a recreation party has with others.
Kate Purcell
- Published in print:
- 2019
- Published Online:
- March 2020
- ISBN:
- 9780198743644
- eISBN:
- 9780191803796
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/oso/9780198743644.003.0008
- Subject:
- Law, Public International Law, Environmental and Energy Law
This chapter looks at debates over whether the charted or ‘actual’ low-water line constitutes the normal baseline in commentary considering the implications of climate-related coastal change for ...
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This chapter looks at debates over whether the charted or ‘actual’ low-water line constitutes the normal baseline in commentary considering the implications of climate-related coastal change for maritime jurisdiction. It suggests that there has been some conflation of legal lines with the geographical objects by reference to which they are constructed or described. This seems to have encouraged the attribution of the natural variability of features of the coastal environment to both cartographic constructs and legal limits. The chapter revisits the text and drafting history of UNCLOS and the 1958 Conventions to explain why the identification of natural objects and qualities with either or both cartographic and legal constructs misunderstands the role of charted geographical features in the law.Less
This chapter looks at debates over whether the charted or ‘actual’ low-water line constitutes the normal baseline in commentary considering the implications of climate-related coastal change for maritime jurisdiction. It suggests that there has been some conflation of legal lines with the geographical objects by reference to which they are constructed or described. This seems to have encouraged the attribution of the natural variability of features of the coastal environment to both cartographic constructs and legal limits. The chapter revisits the text and drafting history of UNCLOS and the 1958 Conventions to explain why the identification of natural objects and qualities with either or both cartographic and legal constructs misunderstands the role of charted geographical features in the law.
Mitchell Silver
- Published in print:
- 2006
- Published Online:
- March 2011
- ISBN:
- 9780823226818
- eISBN:
- 9780823236565
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Fordham University Press
- DOI:
- 10.5422/fso/9780823226818.003.0005
- Subject:
- Religion, Judaism
This chapter examines the theologians' credible God's candidacy for belief by the standard of usefulness. It introduces a baseline God of the theologians, the God that ...
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This chapter examines the theologians' credible God's candidacy for belief by the standard of usefulness. It introduces a baseline God of the theologians, the God that will be tested for utility. In addition to the theologians' God and its variants, the chapter also provides a conception of a “traditional” God. When appraising the theologians' God's utility, the utility of the traditional God is a key standard to bring to bear. The chapter claims that as the creator of morality, God has failed to satisfy the scrupulous for thousands of years. The price of making God the creator of morality is that God stops being morally good. The old God was in a better logical position to be the teacher of morality than she was to be the creator of morality.Less
This chapter examines the theologians' credible God's candidacy for belief by the standard of usefulness. It introduces a baseline God of the theologians, the God that will be tested for utility. In addition to the theologians' God and its variants, the chapter also provides a conception of a “traditional” God. When appraising the theologians' God's utility, the utility of the traditional God is a key standard to bring to bear. The chapter claims that as the creator of morality, God has failed to satisfy the scrupulous for thousands of years. The price of making God the creator of morality is that God stops being morally good. The old God was in a better logical position to be the teacher of morality than she was to be the creator of morality.
Mitchell Silver
- Published in print:
- 2006
- Published Online:
- March 2011
- ISBN:
- 9780823226818
- eISBN:
- 9780823236565
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Fordham University Press
- DOI:
- 10.5422/fso/9780823226818.003.0006
- Subject:
- Religion, Judaism
This chapter discusses the solace and hope one can have from a new God and tries to examine things from God's perspective. It argues that the security that comes with ...
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This chapter discusses the solace and hope one can have from a new God and tries to examine things from God's perspective. It argues that the security that comes with guarantees is not to be had from belief in the baseline God. However, people's endeavors have a chance of success. This is a hope that even a God bereft of any organicity offers, so long as it retains the baseline God's property of possible goodness. That hope is the very definition of the baseline God. To believe in it is to believe that the universe contains the possibility of goodness, and goodness includes one's own happiness and vision of justice. The chapter suggests that it is difficult logically to derive comfort from a belief in the baseline God or a close variant. The logic of consolation requires the old, less credible, God.Less
This chapter discusses the solace and hope one can have from a new God and tries to examine things from God's perspective. It argues that the security that comes with guarantees is not to be had from belief in the baseline God. However, people's endeavors have a chance of success. This is a hope that even a God bereft of any organicity offers, so long as it retains the baseline God's property of possible goodness. That hope is the very definition of the baseline God. To believe in it is to believe that the universe contains the possibility of goodness, and goodness includes one's own happiness and vision of justice. The chapter suggests that it is difficult logically to derive comfort from a belief in the baseline God or a close variant. The logic of consolation requires the old, less credible, God.
Peter Vanderschraaf
- Published in print:
- 2018
- Published Online:
- November 2018
- ISBN:
- 9780199832194
- eISBN:
- 9780190213336
- Item type:
- book
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/oso/9780199832194.001.0001
- Subject:
- Philosophy, Moral Philosophy, Political Philosophy
This work presents a new analysis and evaluation, based upon an original game-theoretic analysis of convention, of the thesis that justice consists of systems of distinguished conventions. This ...
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This work presents a new analysis and evaluation, based upon an original game-theoretic analysis of convention, of the thesis that justice consists of systems of distinguished conventions. This thesis has ancient roots but has never been central in philosophy because convention itself has historically been so poorly understood. Given a sufficiently precise and general analysis of convention, the view that justice at bottom consists of conventions provides cogent answers to two perennial questions: (1) What is justice? (2) Why be just? Conventions are analyzed as correlated equilibria of games where the agents involved have available alternative equilibria. This analysis is sufficiently general to summarize social interactions where the interests of the agents diverge, so that a satisfactory resolution incorporates principles of justice. Agents are in circumstances of justice when (i) their underlying game has multiple optimal conventions they can achieve when all contribute to a cooperative surplus and (ii) each contributor risks being let down if this agent contributes and the others fail to contribute. Necessary and sufficient conditions are proposed for a satisfactory analysis of justice as mutual advantage that characterize justice as a special set of Baseline-Consistent conventions of agents in circumstances of justice. The origins of norms of fairness as the product of salience and inductive learning are explored. The state social contract is analyzed as a self-enforcing governing convention. The Reconciliation Project of demonstrating the compatibility of justice and rational prudence is reevaluated in light of the analysis of convention developed here.Less
This work presents a new analysis and evaluation, based upon an original game-theoretic analysis of convention, of the thesis that justice consists of systems of distinguished conventions. This thesis has ancient roots but has never been central in philosophy because convention itself has historically been so poorly understood. Given a sufficiently precise and general analysis of convention, the view that justice at bottom consists of conventions provides cogent answers to two perennial questions: (1) What is justice? (2) Why be just? Conventions are analyzed as correlated equilibria of games where the agents involved have available alternative equilibria. This analysis is sufficiently general to summarize social interactions where the interests of the agents diverge, so that a satisfactory resolution incorporates principles of justice. Agents are in circumstances of justice when (i) their underlying game has multiple optimal conventions they can achieve when all contribute to a cooperative surplus and (ii) each contributor risks being let down if this agent contributes and the others fail to contribute. Necessary and sufficient conditions are proposed for a satisfactory analysis of justice as mutual advantage that characterize justice as a special set of Baseline-Consistent conventions of agents in circumstances of justice. The origins of norms of fairness as the product of salience and inductive learning are explored. The state social contract is analyzed as a self-enforcing governing convention. The Reconciliation Project of demonstrating the compatibility of justice and rational prudence is reevaluated in light of the analysis of convention developed here.
John Kemm
- Published in print:
- 2012
- Published Online:
- January 2013
- ISBN:
- 9780199656011
- eISBN:
- 9780191748028
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199656011.003.0002
- Subject:
- Public Health and Epidemiology, Public Health, Epidemiology
This chapter describes the first two steps in HIA. It considers how to decide whether an HIA should be done for any proposal (screening). The discussion of scoping considers how to map stakeholders ...
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This chapter describes the first two steps in HIA. It considers how to decide whether an HIA should be done for any proposal (screening). The discussion of scoping considers how to map stakeholders and form a steering group. It then considers the setting of geographic and temporal scope and the importance of deciding what is in-scope and what out-of-scope. The causal diagram is introduced as an aid to planning the assessment. The resources and skills needed for an HIA are then discussed. Lastly the gathering of baseline evidence for the HIA is reviewed.Less
This chapter describes the first two steps in HIA. It considers how to decide whether an HIA should be done for any proposal (screening). The discussion of scoping considers how to map stakeholders and form a steering group. It then considers the setting of geographic and temporal scope and the importance of deciding what is in-scope and what out-of-scope. The causal diagram is introduced as an aid to planning the assessment. The resources and skills needed for an HIA are then discussed. Lastly the gathering of baseline evidence for the HIA is reviewed.
Edmund F. Kallina
- Published in print:
- 2010
- Published Online:
- September 2011
- ISBN:
- 9780813034850
- eISBN:
- 9780813038599
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- University Press of Florida
- DOI:
- 10.5744/florida/9780813034850.003.0011
- Subject:
- History, American History: 20th Century
While the 1960 presidential election was over, the controversy concerning it was just beginning. Historians, political scientists, politicians, and interested citizens began trying to make sense of ...
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While the 1960 presidential election was over, the controversy concerning it was just beginning. Historians, political scientists, politicians, and interested citizens began trying to make sense of what had happened. Inevitably, these interpretations were more about satisfying the practical and psychological needs of the interpreter than anything else. The explanations made their way into the national consciousness, where they have continued to shape the popular perception of the election for a half century.Less
While the 1960 presidential election was over, the controversy concerning it was just beginning. Historians, political scientists, politicians, and interested citizens began trying to make sense of what had happened. Inevitably, these interpretations were more about satisfying the practical and psychological needs of the interpreter than anything else. The explanations made their way into the national consciousness, where they have continued to shape the popular perception of the election for a half century.
Alice M. Hammel and Ryan M. Hourigan
- Published in print:
- 2011
- Published Online:
- November 2020
- ISBN:
- 9780195395402
- eISBN:
- 9780197562819
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/oso/9780195395402.003.0013
- Subject:
- Education, Teaching of Specific Groups and Special Educational Needs
Every successful music educator has a curriculum that contains a scope (overarching goals) and sequence (how we will achieve our goals and in what order) ...
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Every successful music educator has a curriculum that contains a scope (overarching goals) and sequence (how we will achieve our goals and in what order) that are critical to reaching meaningful educational goals within the music classroom. Walker and Soltis (2004) state: “Working with the curriculum is an integral part of all teachers’ daily lives”. When specific curricula are not mandated (by the state, or federal government), most music educators use a set of standards or guidelines to devise a scope and sequence for classroom teaching (i.e., the National Standards). It is important as music educators to consider their curriculum when preparing to teach all students, not just students with learning challenges. This is what separates an educator from a therapist or a service provider. The questions that we will address in this chapter include: How do music educators maintain a focus on their own curricular goals while adapting that same curriculum to the individual needs of students? And how do we assess and reflect on these goals to make adjustments in our curriculum? These are difficult questions to answer. In fact, this has been a challenge for teachers since the inclusion of students with special needs began following the passage of P.L. 94–142 more than 35 years ago. Walker and Soltis explain, “While many teachers supported the goal, many were offended that rigid regulations were imposed on them without their consent”. All these issues require a thoughtful and sequential approach when preparing, presenting, and assessing instruction in the music classroom. However, the stronger the underlying curricular focus is, the easier it will be to adapt and modify your existing curriculum to individualize instruction for students who have learning differences. Your specific curriculum, if not mandated by your state or school system, will be a result of your philosophy of music education. Even when utilizing prescribed curricula, your choices in scope and sequence will reflect your values in the classroom. These same values will be reflected in the choices you make in modifying your curricula for students with special needs.
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Every successful music educator has a curriculum that contains a scope (overarching goals) and sequence (how we will achieve our goals and in what order) that are critical to reaching meaningful educational goals within the music classroom. Walker and Soltis (2004) state: “Working with the curriculum is an integral part of all teachers’ daily lives”. When specific curricula are not mandated (by the state, or federal government), most music educators use a set of standards or guidelines to devise a scope and sequence for classroom teaching (i.e., the National Standards). It is important as music educators to consider their curriculum when preparing to teach all students, not just students with learning challenges. This is what separates an educator from a therapist or a service provider. The questions that we will address in this chapter include: How do music educators maintain a focus on their own curricular goals while adapting that same curriculum to the individual needs of students? And how do we assess and reflect on these goals to make adjustments in our curriculum? These are difficult questions to answer. In fact, this has been a challenge for teachers since the inclusion of students with special needs began following the passage of P.L. 94–142 more than 35 years ago. Walker and Soltis explain, “While many teachers supported the goal, many were offended that rigid regulations were imposed on them without their consent”. All these issues require a thoughtful and sequential approach when preparing, presenting, and assessing instruction in the music classroom. However, the stronger the underlying curricular focus is, the easier it will be to adapt and modify your existing curriculum to individualize instruction for students who have learning differences. Your specific curriculum, if not mandated by your state or school system, will be a result of your philosophy of music education. Even when utilizing prescribed curricula, your choices in scope and sequence will reflect your values in the classroom. These same values will be reflected in the choices you make in modifying your curricula for students with special needs.
Robin Hanson
- Published in print:
- 2016
- Published Online:
- November 2020
- ISBN:
- 9780198754626
- eISBN:
- 9780191917028
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/oso/9780198754626.003.0009
- Subject:
- Computer Science, Artificial Intelligence, Machine Learning
The concept of whole brain emulation has been widely discussed in futurism ( Martin 1971 ; Moravec 1988 ; Hanson 1994b , 2008b ; Shulman 2010 ; Alstott ...
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The concept of whole brain emulation has been widely discussed in futurism ( Martin 1971 ; Moravec 1988 ; Hanson 1994b , 2008b ; Shulman 2010 ; Alstott 2013 ; Eth et al. 2013 ; Bostrom 2014 ) and in science fiction ( Clarke 1956 ; Egan 1994 ; Brin 2002 ; Vinge 2003 ; Stross 2006 ) for many decades. Sometimes emulations are called “uploads.” Let me now try to be clearer about the technological assumptions whose consequences I seek to explore. When I refer to a “brain” here, I refer not just to neurons in a head, but also to other supporting cells in the head, and to neurons and key closely connected systems elsewhere in the human body, such as the systems that manage hormones. Using that terminology, I assume, following a wellestablished consensus in the cognitive and brain sciences, that “the mind is just the brain” ( Bermúdez 2010 ). That is, what the brain fundamentally does is to take input signals from eyes, ears, skin, etc., and after a short delay produces both internal state changes and output signals to control muscles, hormone levels, and other body changes. The brain does not just happen to transform input signals into state changes and output signals; this transformation is the primary function of the brain, both to us and to the evolutionary processes that designed brains. The brain is designed to make this signal processing robust and efficient. Because of this, we expect the physical variables (technically, “degrees of freedom”) within the brain that encode signals and signal-relevant states, which transform these signals and states, and which transmit them elsewhere, to be overall rather physically isolated and disconnected from the other far more numerous unrelated physical degrees of freedom and processes in the brain. That is, changes in other aspects of the brain only rarely influence key brain parts that encode mental states and signals. We have seen this disconnection in ears and eyes, and it has allowed us to create useful artificial ears and eyes, which allow the once-deaf to hear and the once-blind to see. We expect the same to apply to artificial brains more generally. In addition, it appears that most brain signals are of the form of neuron spikes, which are especially identifiable and disconnected from other physical variables.
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The concept of whole brain emulation has been widely discussed in futurism ( Martin 1971 ; Moravec 1988 ; Hanson 1994b , 2008b ; Shulman 2010 ; Alstott 2013 ; Eth et al. 2013 ; Bostrom 2014 ) and in science fiction ( Clarke 1956 ; Egan 1994 ; Brin 2002 ; Vinge 2003 ; Stross 2006 ) for many decades. Sometimes emulations are called “uploads.” Let me now try to be clearer about the technological assumptions whose consequences I seek to explore. When I refer to a “brain” here, I refer not just to neurons in a head, but also to other supporting cells in the head, and to neurons and key closely connected systems elsewhere in the human body, such as the systems that manage hormones. Using that terminology, I assume, following a wellestablished consensus in the cognitive and brain sciences, that “the mind is just the brain” ( Bermúdez 2010 ). That is, what the brain fundamentally does is to take input signals from eyes, ears, skin, etc., and after a short delay produces both internal state changes and output signals to control muscles, hormone levels, and other body changes. The brain does not just happen to transform input signals into state changes and output signals; this transformation is the primary function of the brain, both to us and to the evolutionary processes that designed brains. The brain is designed to make this signal processing robust and efficient. Because of this, we expect the physical variables (technically, “degrees of freedom”) within the brain that encode signals and signal-relevant states, which transform these signals and states, and which transmit them elsewhere, to be overall rather physically isolated and disconnected from the other far more numerous unrelated physical degrees of freedom and processes in the brain. That is, changes in other aspects of the brain only rarely influence key brain parts that encode mental states and signals. We have seen this disconnection in ears and eyes, and it has allowed us to create useful artificial ears and eyes, which allow the once-deaf to hear and the once-blind to see. We expect the same to apply to artificial brains more generally. In addition, it appears that most brain signals are of the form of neuron spikes, which are especially identifiable and disconnected from other physical variables.
