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This chapter explores the use of autonomic nervous system (ANS) measures as potential biomarkers for medically unexplained disorders. It is proposed that these disorders are better classified and treated as related symptom clusters with logical physiological and psychophysiological involving the sympathetic and parasympathetic branches of the ANS. Heart rate variability is described and several examples are given of how specific autonomic biomarkers are related to mental and physical function. Some examples from the worlds of chronic pain and gastroenterology are presented as exemplars using of a simple marker (HRV) that reflects imbalance between the body’s primary excitatory and inhibitory systems, that can readily be linked to gene-brain personalized medicine markers underlying excitation-inhibitory imbalances in brain-based disorders.

This chapter explores the experimental studies investigating motor imagery through the recording of autonomic nervous system activity. It outlines the goals and methods of such peripheral recordings in studying mental processes. It also discusses how the motor commands sent to the autonomic effectors are facilitated during motor imagery, whereas the direct voluntary commands transmitted through the pyramidal tract are at least partially inhibited.

This essay describes neurobiological and neuroendocrine mechanisms that are implicated in human caregiving. Anatomical and biochemical systems that first appeared in the evolutionary transition from reptiles to mammals allowed the emergence of mammalian sociality. Human behaviors are characterized by symbiotic and reciprocal interactions, which are necessary for successful caregiving. The autonomic nervous system, and especially the mammalian changes in the parasympathetic system, provides an essential neural platform for social behavior. Especially critical to coordinating the features of positive sociality are neuropeptides including oxytocin and vasopressin. These neuropeptides modulate the mammalian autonomic nervous system to foster the expression of social behaviors and, when adaptive, defensive behaviors. Oxytocin, the same peptide that regulates various aspects of mammalian reproduction including birth, lactation and maternal behavior, is also involved in the beneficial and reciprocal effects of caregiving on physiology, behavior and health.

This chapter summarizes anatomical, physiological, pathophysiological, pharmacological, immunological, and some therapeutic information dealing with most types of diseases. Evidence is presented to support the notion that clinical symptoms (cardiovascular, gastrointestinal, respiratory, dermatological, nephrological, rheumatological, hematological, endocrinological, and others) depend on central nervous system (CNS) disorders that project to the peripheral organs throughout the peripheral autonomic nervous system (ANS) and neuroendocrine pathways. In addition, psychological disorders such as depression and psychosis also provoke ANS, hormonal, and immunological disorders that are responsible for different somatic symptoms. The chapter also demonstrates that the adrenal glands are hypoactive during both childhood and senescence. This peripheral ANS profile explains why they are affected by specific pathophysiological disorders that are rarely observed in young adult subjects. This chapter also presents data emanating from the routine assessment of circulating neurotransmitters that showed that diseases are underlain by peripheral nervous system or adrenal sympathetic overactivity.

This chapter discusses the fundamental significance of homeostasis and the autonomic nervous system. The goal of homeostasis is the balanced, energy-efficient maintenance of the integrity and health of the body in support of the well-being and advancement of the individual and the species. The optimal utilization of energy is key for the survival of every living organism, and it is an essential and decisive determinant of natural selection. Virtually every facet of homeostasis interacts with hormones, neuromodulators, and signaling peptides that are directly involved in energy balance. Ultimately, the need for optimal energy utilization in both body and brain is the evolutionary pressure that produced the progressive interoceptive integration in the insular cortex that led to the emergence of human subjective awareness.

At the heart of mammalian social behaviors are evolved neural and endocrine pathways that support both survival and reproduction in an “environment of evolutionary adaptiveness.” The physiological prototype for mammalian social behaviors can be found in birth, lactation, and maternal behavior. Two mammalian neuropeptides, oxytocin and arginine vasopressin, are particularly critical to mammalian reproduction and sociality, with actions throughout the central and autonomic nervous systems. The same systems that regulate the formation of social bonds and attachments also regulate emotionality and reactivity to stressful experiences. Knowledge of these neurobiological systems helps to explain the causes and consequences of social behavior and the mechanisms through which social behavior is integrated with emotional regulation and management of the “stress of life.”

The complexity of fish behaviour and information processing indicates high levels of neural, anatomical and functional organization. Neural cells are conducting neurons and neuroglia with putative support and physiological roles. Neuronal conduction, synaptic transmission, reflexes and neuropils are factors in integrative activity and information processing. Fish nervous systems are organized into central (brain and spinal cord) and peripheral (including autonomic) components. Interestingly the structure and function of the fish optic tectum have been considered comparable to those of the tetrapod cerebral cortex. Also of interest are the bilaterally paired large Mauthner fibres in the teleost central nervous system, which mediate startle responses. The autonomic nervous system in fish occupies a pivotal position amongst vertebrates, including uncertainty about the existence of a posterior parasympathetic component. The trend is to regard it in terms of spinal autonomic (sympathetic) cranial autonomic (parasympathetic) and enteric systems. Accounts of the autonomic control of individual effector systems are included.

This chapter describes early evidence for chemical transmission in the autonomic nervous system, at neuromuscular junctions, and in the central nervous system. Chemical transmission in the autonomic nervous system was examined at three sites: between sympathetic postganglionic fibres and their effector cells, at corresponding junctions of parasympathetic postganglionic fibres, and in autonomic ganglia between preganglionic fibres and ganglionic neurons. The chapter also discusses the role of acetylcholine in chemical transmissions at neuromuscular junctions and in the central nervous system.

Theories of emotion often posit that visceral physiological changes mediated by the autonomic nervous system are a fundamental aspect of emotional responding. Early empirical studies of “happiness” suggested that positive emotions have limited autonomic involvement, as compared with negative emotions. More recently, however, studies examining a wider variety of positive emotion states and differentiating among several neural mechanisms within the autonomic nervous system have uncovered considerable evidence for autonomic reactivity in positive emotion. This chapter (1) reviews the structure of the autonomic nervous system and key methodological issues for research on emotion psychophysiology; (2) summarizes four major theories of autonomic involvement in positive emotion (“undoing” of distress-related arousal, polyvagal theory, approach motivation, and autonomic specificity) and the state of the evidence for each theory; and (3) offers tentative conclusions and future directions for the emerging field of positive emotion psychophysiology, as well as implications for the light and dark sides of positive emotion.

Various efforts to communicate with plants form the subject of this chapter. According to general systems theory, mental processes are not restricted to conscious thought; the body’s kinesthetic and sensory pathways are key aspects of intelligence and comprise a more inclusive intelligence than consciousness alone can provide. This holistic intelligence gives rise to an intuitive grasp of the environment that registers as feelings. Empathy is communication via such feelings. In this light, even plants could be viewed as intelligent, since they responded to their environments via electrical impulses that might be compared to bodily affects in humans. This formed the basis of efforts to communicate with plants using galvanometers, mesmerism, or telepathy (often aided by the ingestion of psychedelic plants). Biofeedback therapy and holistic medicine equated the autonomic nervous system with the vegetable mind within. While it was exciting to imagine a ubiquitous network of vegetable intelligence, it was at the same time unsettling, since a view of plants as sentient subjects implicitly threatens to undo the mystique with which we psychologically surround our own subjectivity. Plants in this sense become uncanny. But certain styles of music appeared to offer a middle ground where such disparate minds might comfortably meet.

Can music induce emotions directly and, if so, are these emotions experienced similarly to emotions arising in other contexts? This chapter analyzes these questions from the perspective of neuroscience. Despite the fact that music does not appear to have an obvious survival value for modern adults, research indicates that listening to music does activate autonomic, subcortical, and cortical systems in a manner similar to other emotional stimuli. It is proposed that music may be so intimately connected with emotional systems because caregivers use music to communicate emotionally with their infants before they are able to understand language. In particular, it examines whether music engages the autonomic nervous system, sub-cortical emotion networks, and cortical areas involved in the emotional processing of other types of stimuli. It also investigates whether emotional reactions to music are simply cultural conventions by asking whether and how infants process musical emotions.

This chapter examines the notion of “arousal”, an influential notion in affective science referring to the degree of an individual’s “activation” or “excitement” during an emotional state. It considers this notion specifically in relation to interoception, defined broadly as “sensitivity to stimuli arising inside the organism.” “Physiological arousal” is distinguished from “experienced arousal” and it is argued that both need to be characterized more broadly than commonly done. Physiological arousal cannot be reduced to sympathetic activation, as it involves complex interactions between multiple functionally distinct pathways within sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions of the autonomic nervous system, as well as endocrine and immune systems, and even the gut microbiota. Relatedly, experienced arousal does not reduce to the perception of changes in the body sensed by visceral afferents in response to autonomic nervous system activity but also includes humorally mediated interoceptive pathways, somatic sensations of various kinds, and “background” bodily feelings.

This chapter discusses advances in identifying chemical transmission across synapses from 1945 to 1965. John C. Eccles dominated synaptic physiology before this period, first defending electrical transmission energetically and then demonstrating chemical transmission decisively. During these two decades, new experimental techniques, notably those exploiting intracellular microelectrodes and electron microscopes, extended the principle of chemical transmission from the autonomic nervous system to neuromuscular junctions and the central nervous system. New general phenomena were recognized, such as presynaptic inhibition, and new circuits for reciprocal control were delineated.

Early studies examining the relations between respiratory sinus arrhythmia (RSA), an index of parasympathetic regulation, and children’s prosocial development provided little evidence of consistent associations. We contend that the Polyvagal Theory, as recently refined by Stephen Porges (2007, 2011), provides an evolutionary-based theoretical framework for the essential role of the parasympathetic nervous system (PNS), and the vagus nerve in particular, in the generation of positive other-oriented emotions and actions. Recent studies provide evidence that the flexible withdrawal and augmentation of parasympathetic influence over cardiac activity is associated with effective emotion regulation in response to others’ emotions, feelings of sympathetic concern, and displays of helpful and altruistic behaviors. Thus, one key aspect of understanding the multidisciplinarity of prosocial behavior is recognizing the integration of physiological, affective, cognitive and behavioral functioning that underlies children’s positive engagement with their social world.

Sjögren’s disease can affect the central, peripheral, and autonomic nervous systems. Peripheral neuropathy, which is more common than central nervous system complications, may include sensory polyneuropathy, sensorimotor polyneuropathy, small fiber neuropathy, sensory ganglionopathy, or cranial neuropathies. Autonomic dysfunction may be characterized by feelings of lightheadedness, dizziness, changes in blood pressure, sweating abnormalities, and more. When managing these conditions, a three-pronged approach may be considered that includes treating the underlying pathophysiology and providing symptomatic and supportive treatments.  

In this chapter, we explore brain and body mechanisms that link the experience of stereotype threat to changes in cognitive and behavioral performance. We begin by identifying a model of causal sequences of stereotype threat: psychological states associated with stereotype threat, neurobiological responses triggered by these psychological states, and cognitive and behavioral outcomes that are influenced by the neurobiological states. We explore this theoretical path analysis throughout the chapter, focusing on two broad psychological states often implicated in stereotype-threat processes: stress arousal and vigilance. To explore stress arousal as an explanation for stereotype threat performance effects, we highlight the biology underlying stress systems, stress typologies, and temporal trajectories of stress responses. We highlight how these neurobiological changes can influence cognitive and behavioral outcomes, and review existing stereotype threat research that explores these neurobiological responses. We then examine the broad category of vigilance in stereotype threat processes, and again highlight extant stereotype threat literature exploring neurobiological changes associated with vigilance. The intent of the chapter is to provide a neurobiological framework to assist stereotype threat researchers in identifying possible brain and body mechanisms that may be directly or indirectly implicated in performance changes engendered by stereotype threat.

This chapter explores how emotional arousal is a common component of everyday experience. Arousal can be positive and/or negative, and it can vary greatly in its intensity. Importantly, arousal is a state of excitation that involves activation of the autonomic nervous system and heightened activity in both mind and body. Television has been viewed as particularly capable of prompting emotional arousal relative to print. Studies of media effects have focused primarily on the effects of television on arousal in the form of fear and aggression in response to violent media. The chapter uses highly controlled laboratory experiments to evaluate the consequences of close-ups and incivility for viewers' levels of emotional arousal and their memory of political television content.

This chapter illustrates that learning reflects the neurophysiological design and operations of the body. Such is the case with respondent conditioning, which acknowledges that a response is conditioned by a stimulus that elicits the response. The chapter also discusses the difference between respondent and operant conditioning. Respondent conditioning determines the occasions for unlearned patterns of responding of the kind generally governed by the autonomic nervous system. By contrast, operant conditioning encourages responses that bring about procurement of various things and events and states of being.

This chapter aims to give you knowledge and understanding of the skills required to provide safe and effective care to a child presenting with a neurological disorder. The chapter will focus mainly on the more frequently encountered neurological conditions and procedures both in a hospital and community setting. In addition the importance of family centred care (Chapter Two) and a culturally sensitive approach to care will be discussed. ● The rationale for undertaking a neurological assessment and how to carry out a neurological assessment on a child. ● The important elements of care of the child with a head injury based on the best practice. ● Key responsibilities of the nurse before, during, and after a lumbar puncture procedure. ● Various approaches to neurological imaging and the main principles involved in preparing a child for these. ● The main causes of seizures in childhood. ● The main principles involved in caring for a child with a convulsive seizure. ● The nurse’s role in caring for an unconscious child. Good knowledge of national and local polices and guidelines in relation to this area are recommended to compliment learning in this chapter. Furthermore it is essential for students to have a good understanding of the anatomy and physiology of the neurological system when caring for a child with a neurological disorder. A thorough understanding and knowledge of the key structures and functions of the brain will assist in understanding neurological conditions and will help in appreciating the significance and relevance of monitoring neurological status (this section will concentrate mainly on the structure and function of the brain). Nevertheless, it is advisable to revise in more depth the nervous system in your core anatomy and physiology book. Knowledge from other chapters is also advisable in order to understand the interdependence between body systems and the brain.

Sleep problems are common in patients with Sjögren’s disease, with the most frequent complaint being nonrestorative sleep. Sleep efficiency and the amount of time spent in deep sleep appear to be reduced in many Sjögren’s patients. The causes of sleep problems in Sjögren’s are unknown, but autonomic nervous system involvement is suspected of playing a role. Major factors associated with Sjögren’s and sleep disturbances were dry eye, sleep apnea, and nocturnal pain. While few studies have been done, medications under investigation for use in Sjögren’s and other autoimmune disorders or already on the market for sleep problems might prove useful.