Tariq Ramadan
- Published in print:
- 2008
- Published Online:
- January 2009
- ISBN:
- 9780195331714
- eISBN:
- 9780191720987
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195331714.003.0006
- Subject:
- Religion, Islam
This chapter focuses on the school of higher objectives of law (madrasat al-maqâsid) established by Abû Ishâq ash-Shâtibî. It is shown that ash-Shâtibî's methodology reconciles scholars with the ...
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This chapter focuses on the school of higher objectives of law (madrasat al-maqâsid) established by Abû Ishâq ash-Shâtibî. It is shown that ash-Shâtibî's methodology reconciles scholars with the original confidence shared by the Prophet's Companions, the people of Medina, and Mâlik himself, because they moved more freely between the meaning of texts and their own excellent and intimate knowledge of their human context. More broadly, and more essentially, it sheds renewed (mujaddid) light on the Prophetic tradition (hadîth) that states: “God has set some limits, so one must not transgress them; He has commanded some commands, so one must not ignore them; He has made some things unlawful, so one must not commit them. He has also kept silent (sakata) about some matters as a mercy, not because He has forgotten them, so one should not ask about them”.Less
This chapter focuses on the school of higher objectives of law (madrasat al-maqâsid) established by Abû Ishâq ash-Shâtibî. It is shown that ash-Shâtibî's methodology reconciles scholars with the original confidence shared by the Prophet's Companions, the people of Medina, and Mâlik himself, because they moved more freely between the meaning of texts and their own excellent and intimate knowledge of their human context. More broadly, and more essentially, it sheds renewed (mujaddid) light on the Prophetic tradition (hadîth) that states: “God has set some limits, so one must not transgress them; He has commanded some commands, so one must not ignore them; He has made some things unlawful, so one must not commit them. He has also kept silent (sakata) about some matters as a mercy, not because He has forgotten them, so one should not ask about them”.
Livnat Holtzman
- Published in print:
- 2018
- Published Online:
- September 2018
- ISBN:
- 9780748689569
- eISBN:
- 9781474444828
- Item type:
- book
- Publisher:
- Edinburgh University Press
- DOI:
- 10.3366/edinburgh/9780748689569.001.0001
- Subject:
- Religion, Islam
More than any other issue in early and medieval Islamic theology, anthropomorphism (tashbīh) stood at the heart of many theological debates. These debates were not purely intellectual; they were ...
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More than any other issue in early and medieval Islamic theology, anthropomorphism (tashbīh) stood at the heart of many theological debates. These debates were not purely intellectual; they were intrinsically linked to political struggles over hegemony. The way a scholar interpreted the anthropomorphic descriptions of God in the Qur’an and the Hadith (for instance, God’s hand, God’s laughter or God’s sitting on the heavenly throne) often reflected his political and social stature, and his theological affinity. This book focuses on aḥādīth al-ṣifāt – the traditions that depict God and His attributes in an anthropomorphic language. The book reveals the way these traditions were studied and interpreted in the circles of Islamic traditionalism which included ultra-traditionalists (the Hanbalites and their forerunners) and middle-of-the-road traditionalists (Ash’arites and their forerunners). The book presents an in-depth literary analysis of aḥādīth al-ṣifāt while considering the role of the early scholars of Hadith in shaping the narrative of these anthropomorphic texts. The book also offers the first scholarly and systematic presentation of hand, face, and bodily gestures that the scholars performed while transmitting the anthropomorphic traditions. The book goes on to discuss the inner controversies in the prominent traditionalistic learning centres of the Islamic world regarding the way to understand and interpret these anthropomorphic traditions. Through a close, contextualized, and interdisciplinary reading in Hadith compilations, theological treatises, and historical sources, this book offers an evaluation and understanding of the traditionalistic endeavours to define anthropomorphism in the most crucial and indeed most formative period of Islamic thought.Less
More than any other issue in early and medieval Islamic theology, anthropomorphism (tashbīh) stood at the heart of many theological debates. These debates were not purely intellectual; they were intrinsically linked to political struggles over hegemony. The way a scholar interpreted the anthropomorphic descriptions of God in the Qur’an and the Hadith (for instance, God’s hand, God’s laughter or God’s sitting on the heavenly throne) often reflected his political and social stature, and his theological affinity. This book focuses on aḥādīth al-ṣifāt – the traditions that depict God and His attributes in an anthropomorphic language. The book reveals the way these traditions were studied and interpreted in the circles of Islamic traditionalism which included ultra-traditionalists (the Hanbalites and their forerunners) and middle-of-the-road traditionalists (Ash’arites and their forerunners). The book presents an in-depth literary analysis of aḥādīth al-ṣifāt while considering the role of the early scholars of Hadith in shaping the narrative of these anthropomorphic texts. The book also offers the first scholarly and systematic presentation of hand, face, and bodily gestures that the scholars performed while transmitting the anthropomorphic traditions. The book goes on to discuss the inner controversies in the prominent traditionalistic learning centres of the Islamic world regarding the way to understand and interpret these anthropomorphic traditions. Through a close, contextualized, and interdisciplinary reading in Hadith compilations, theological treatises, and historical sources, this book offers an evaluation and understanding of the traditionalistic endeavours to define anthropomorphism in the most crucial and indeed most formative period of Islamic thought.
Abdulaziz Sachedina
- Published in print:
- 2009
- Published Online:
- May 2009
- ISBN:
- 9780195378504
- eISBN:
- 9780199869688
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195378504.003.0002
- Subject:
- Religion, Islam
This chapter explores the role culture plays in providing the moral presuppositions and the way ethics builds upon the formal normative framework, for the moral choices that Muslims make in the ...
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This chapter explores the role culture plays in providing the moral presuppositions and the way ethics builds upon the formal normative framework, for the moral choices that Muslims make in the context of bioethics. The chapter examines the nature of Islamic ethical discourse in order to demonstrate that ethical judgments in Islam are an amalgam of the empirical—the relative cultural elements derived from the particular experience of Muslims living in a specific place and time—and the a priori—the timeless universal norms derived from scriptural sources. The chapter discusses fundamentals of Islamic ethics and distinguishes it from Islamic juridical tradition both through differentiations as well as correlation. It also argues for distinctly Islamic principles and rules for biomedical deliberations and decision-making which are organically related to Islamic legal theory developed by Muslim jurists. The research is inclusive of the four Sunni and Shi‘ite schools of jurisprudence.Less
This chapter explores the role culture plays in providing the moral presuppositions and the way ethics builds upon the formal normative framework, for the moral choices that Muslims make in the context of bioethics. The chapter examines the nature of Islamic ethical discourse in order to demonstrate that ethical judgments in Islam are an amalgam of the empirical—the relative cultural elements derived from the particular experience of Muslims living in a specific place and time—and the a priori—the timeless universal norms derived from scriptural sources. The chapter discusses fundamentals of Islamic ethics and distinguishes it from Islamic juridical tradition both through differentiations as well as correlation. It also argues for distinctly Islamic principles and rules for biomedical deliberations and decision-making which are organically related to Islamic legal theory developed by Muslim jurists. The research is inclusive of the four Sunni and Shi‘ite schools of jurisprudence.
Frank Griffel
- Published in print:
- 2009
- Published Online:
- September 2009
- ISBN:
- 9780195331622
- eISBN:
- 9780199867998
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195331622.003.0006
- Subject:
- Religion, Theology, Islam
This chapter presents the two most important views about cosmology held by Muslims in the era of al-Ghazali. The first is the cosmology of the Ash’arite school of Muslim theology, which developed ...
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This chapter presents the two most important views about cosmology held by Muslims in the era of al-Ghazali. The first is the cosmology of the Ash’arite school of Muslim theology, which developed earlier ideas of the Mu’tazilites into what has become knows as occasionalism. Its main components are the atomism of the earlier Mu’tazilites plus the idea that time is a leaped sequence of moments. The latter idea is sometimes called an “atomism of time.” In every moment, God rearranges all the atoms of this world and creates their accidents anew—thus creating a new world every moment that is not causally connected to the one in the moment before. The Muslim philosophers subscribed to a different cosmology where God is regarded as the first cause of all events in this work. Here, God does not act directly on all its creatures but only through the mediation of so-called secondary causes. Every cause is caused by another cause etc. until this chain ends in God, the first cause. The chapter shows how the usual view that these two cosmologies are diametrically opposed to one another cannot be maintained and that al-Juwayni, for instance, al-Ghazali’s teacher, already applies a cosmology where he applies elements of both systems.Less
This chapter presents the two most important views about cosmology held by Muslims in the era of al-Ghazali. The first is the cosmology of the Ash’arite school of Muslim theology, which developed earlier ideas of the Mu’tazilites into what has become knows as occasionalism. Its main components are the atomism of the earlier Mu’tazilites plus the idea that time is a leaped sequence of moments. The latter idea is sometimes called an “atomism of time.” In every moment, God rearranges all the atoms of this world and creates their accidents anew—thus creating a new world every moment that is not causally connected to the one in the moment before. The Muslim philosophers subscribed to a different cosmology where God is regarded as the first cause of all events in this work. Here, God does not act directly on all its creatures but only through the mediation of so-called secondary causes. Every cause is caused by another cause etc. until this chain ends in God, the first cause. The chapter shows how the usual view that these two cosmologies are diametrically opposed to one another cannot be maintained and that al-Juwayni, for instance, al-Ghazali’s teacher, already applies a cosmology where he applies elements of both systems.
Nicholas Lossky
- Published in print:
- 1991
- Published Online:
- September 2011
- ISBN:
- 9780198261858
- eISBN:
- 9780191682223
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198261858.003.0005
- Subject:
- Religion, History of Christianity
This chapter discusses the Lent sermons of Andrewes. Andrewes's Lent sermons were divided into two distinct series, eight of them were preached on Ash Wednesday (Sermons of Repentance and Fasting ...
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This chapter discusses the Lent sermons of Andrewes. Andrewes's Lent sermons were divided into two distinct series, eight of them were preached on Ash Wednesday (Sermons of Repentance and Fasting Preached on Ash-Wednesday), while the other six (Sermons Preached in Lent) were all preached on other occasions during the Lenten season. These fourteen sermons cover a wider period when compared to the Christmas sermons with the first sermon preached on 1589/90 and the last on 1623/4. From the whole group of the Lent sermons, all of the Lenten sermons including three or four of the Ash Wednesday sermons were preached before Queen Elizabeth while the five others belong to the last period of James I's reign. This chapter therefore examines the points that are common and the differences between these periods in Andrewes's preaching, one beginning at his age of thirty-five and the other ending two years before his death.Less
This chapter discusses the Lent sermons of Andrewes. Andrewes's Lent sermons were divided into two distinct series, eight of them were preached on Ash Wednesday (Sermons of Repentance and Fasting Preached on Ash-Wednesday), while the other six (Sermons Preached in Lent) were all preached on other occasions during the Lenten season. These fourteen sermons cover a wider period when compared to the Christmas sermons with the first sermon preached on 1589/90 and the last on 1623/4. From the whole group of the Lent sermons, all of the Lenten sermons including three or four of the Ash Wednesday sermons were preached before Queen Elizabeth while the five others belong to the last period of James I's reign. This chapter therefore examines the points that are common and the differences between these periods in Andrewes's preaching, one beginning at his age of thirty-five and the other ending two years before his death.
Virginia Berridge
- Published in print:
- 2007
- Published Online:
- September 2007
- ISBN:
- 9780199260300
- eISBN:
- 9780191717376
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199260300.003.0007
- Subject:
- History, British and Irish Modern History
The emergence of media conscious public health activist groups in the 1960s and 1970s dealing with single issues such as smoking, diet, and heart disease or alcohol was a new development in this era ...
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The emergence of media conscious public health activist groups in the 1960s and 1970s dealing with single issues such as smoking, diet, and heart disease or alcohol was a new development in this era under discussion. This chapter focuses on the activities in the 1970s of one such activist group, ASH (Action on Smoking and Health), established in 1971; this was an exemplar of more general trends in public health. There, the ‘health pressure group’ largely replaced the formal public health occupation as a source of public pressure on health issues. The activities of such groups were at the national rather than the local level, and they used the national media as the vehicle for their message rather than more localized campaigns.Less
The emergence of media conscious public health activist groups in the 1960s and 1970s dealing with single issues such as smoking, diet, and heart disease or alcohol was a new development in this era under discussion. This chapter focuses on the activities in the 1970s of one such activist group, ASH (Action on Smoking and Health), established in 1971; this was an exemplar of more general trends in public health. There, the ‘health pressure group’ largely replaced the formal public health occupation as a source of public pressure on health issues. The activities of such groups were at the national rather than the local level, and they used the national media as the vehicle for their message rather than more localized campaigns.
David E. Shi
- Published in print:
- 1996
- Published Online:
- October 2011
- ISBN:
- 9780195106534
- eISBN:
- 9780199854097
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195106534.003.0013
- Subject:
- History, History of Ideas
In The Genius, Theodore Dreiser told the story of a lustful young painter named Eugene Witla who, like himself, migrated from a small midwestern village to Chicago and then to New York City. Dreiser ...
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In The Genius, Theodore Dreiser told the story of a lustful young painter named Eugene Witla who, like himself, migrated from a small midwestern village to Chicago and then to New York City. Dreiser modeled Witla in part after himself and in part after Everett Shinn, a precociously brilliant graphic artist who had worked with Dreiser on the staff of Ainslee's Magazine. Shinn was one of a handful of iconoclastic young painters in New York who belonged to what critics called the “Ash Can School” because of their fascination with squalid scenes along inner-city streets. More sympathetic observers labeled them the “New York Realists.” In addition to Shinn, these kindred spirits included Robert Henri, William Glackens, George Luks, John Sloan, and George Bellows. They displayed an earnest commitment to unvarnished “truth” rather than decorative “beauty,” a rebellious disdain for the genteel tradition, and a masculine preference for “life” over “art.” By refusing to “finish” their paintings according to “academic” standards, Sloan and his friends presented the “illusion of realism” rather “than a photographic interest in detail.”Less
In The Genius, Theodore Dreiser told the story of a lustful young painter named Eugene Witla who, like himself, migrated from a small midwestern village to Chicago and then to New York City. Dreiser modeled Witla in part after himself and in part after Everett Shinn, a precociously brilliant graphic artist who had worked with Dreiser on the staff of Ainslee's Magazine. Shinn was one of a handful of iconoclastic young painters in New York who belonged to what critics called the “Ash Can School” because of their fascination with squalid scenes along inner-city streets. More sympathetic observers labeled them the “New York Realists.” In addition to Shinn, these kindred spirits included Robert Henri, William Glackens, George Luks, John Sloan, and George Bellows. They displayed an earnest commitment to unvarnished “truth” rather than decorative “beauty,” a rebellious disdain for the genteel tradition, and a masculine preference for “life” over “art.” By refusing to “finish” their paintings according to “academic” standards, Sloan and his friends presented the “illusion of realism” rather “than a photographic interest in detail.”
Satsuki Kawano
- Published in print:
- 2010
- Published Online:
- November 2016
- ISBN:
- 9780824833725
- eISBN:
- 9780824870850
- Item type:
- book
- Publisher:
- University of Hawai'i Press
- DOI:
- 10.21313/hawaii/9780824833725.001.0001
- Subject:
- Anthropology, Asian Cultural Anthropology
Based on extensive fieldwork, this book reveals the emerging pluralization of death rites in postindustrial Japan. Low birth rates and high numbers of people remaining permanently single have led to ...
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Based on extensive fieldwork, this book reveals the emerging pluralization of death rites in postindustrial Japan. Low birth rates and high numbers of people remaining permanently single have led to a shortage of ceremonial caregivers (most commonly married sons and their wives) to ensure the transformation of the dead into ancestors resting in peace. Consequently, older adults are increasingly uncertain about who will perform memorial rites for them and maintain their graves. This book examines Japan's changing death rites from the perspective of those who elect to have their cremated remains scattered and celebrate their return to nature. For those without children, ash scattering is an effective strategy, as it demands neither a grave nor a caretaker. However, the adoption of ash scattering is not limited to the childless. By forgoing graves and lightening the burden on younger generations to care for them, this new mortuary practice has given its proponents an increased sense of control over their posthumous existence. By choosing ash scattering, older adults contest their dependent status in Japanese society, which increasingly views the aged as passive care recipients. As such, this book explores not only new developments in mortuary practices, but also voices for increased self-sufficiency in late adulthood and the elderly's reshaping of ties with younger generations. The book offers insightful discussion on the rise of new death rites and ideologies, older adults' views of their death rites, and Japan's changing society through the eyes of aging urbanites.Less
Based on extensive fieldwork, this book reveals the emerging pluralization of death rites in postindustrial Japan. Low birth rates and high numbers of people remaining permanently single have led to a shortage of ceremonial caregivers (most commonly married sons and their wives) to ensure the transformation of the dead into ancestors resting in peace. Consequently, older adults are increasingly uncertain about who will perform memorial rites for them and maintain their graves. This book examines Japan's changing death rites from the perspective of those who elect to have their cremated remains scattered and celebrate their return to nature. For those without children, ash scattering is an effective strategy, as it demands neither a grave nor a caretaker. However, the adoption of ash scattering is not limited to the childless. By forgoing graves and lightening the burden on younger generations to care for them, this new mortuary practice has given its proponents an increased sense of control over their posthumous existence. By choosing ash scattering, older adults contest their dependent status in Japanese society, which increasingly views the aged as passive care recipients. As such, this book explores not only new developments in mortuary practices, but also voices for increased self-sufficiency in late adulthood and the elderly's reshaping of ties with younger generations. The book offers insightful discussion on the rise of new death rites and ideologies, older adults' views of their death rites, and Japan's changing society through the eyes of aging urbanites.
Sherman A. Jackson
- Published in print:
- 2009
- Published Online:
- October 2011
- ISBN:
- 9780195382068
- eISBN:
- 9780199852437
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195382068.003.0004
- Subject:
- Religion, Islam
This chapter examines the early development and basic features of Ash’arite theology and its possible influence on black theodicy in the U.S. It relates a story that underscores the depth and ...
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This chapter examines the early development and basic features of Ash’arite theology and its possible influence on black theodicy in the U.S. It relates a story that underscores the depth and tenacity of the Ash’arite commitment to a construction of omnipotence that emphatically rejected the Mu’tazilite contention that God is bound by values, principles, or norms that lie outside God’s self-determined dictates. Under Ash’arism belief, nothing God does can be adjudged evil or unjust, regardless of its substance and regardless of its effect on Creation. The most fundamental consequence of the Ash’arites’ construction of omnipotence was their emphatic and uncompromising refusal to admit secondary causes that everything that existed came as a consequence of God’s will.Less
This chapter examines the early development and basic features of Ash’arite theology and its possible influence on black theodicy in the U.S. It relates a story that underscores the depth and tenacity of the Ash’arite commitment to a construction of omnipotence that emphatically rejected the Mu’tazilite contention that God is bound by values, principles, or norms that lie outside God’s self-determined dictates. Under Ash’arism belief, nothing God does can be adjudged evil or unjust, regardless of its substance and regardless of its effect on Creation. The most fundamental consequence of the Ash’arites’ construction of omnipotence was their emphatic and uncompromising refusal to admit secondary causes that everything that existed came as a consequence of God’s will.
Sherman A. Jackson
- Published in print:
- 2009
- Published Online:
- October 2011
- ISBN:
- 9780195382068
- eISBN:
- 9780199852437
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195382068.003.0007
- Subject:
- Religion, Islam
This chapter sums up the key findings of this study on the influence of classical Sunni theological tradition on black theodicy in the U.S. It concludes that despite their emphatic and explicit ...
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This chapter sums up the key findings of this study on the influence of classical Sunni theological tradition on black theodicy in the U.S. It concludes that despite their emphatic and explicit endorsement of divine omnipotence, none of the schools of classical Muslim theology embraces as their going opinion the denial of human choice. It explains that Mu’tazilism virtually removes God altogether from the process via which humans commit evil, while Ash’arism insists that God provides agency but only at the request of human beings. Maturidism and Traditionalism hold that humans basically have enough inherent agency to carry out their will to commit good or evil without any additional grants from God.Less
This chapter sums up the key findings of this study on the influence of classical Sunni theological tradition on black theodicy in the U.S. It concludes that despite their emphatic and explicit endorsement of divine omnipotence, none of the schools of classical Muslim theology embraces as their going opinion the denial of human choice. It explains that Mu’tazilism virtually removes God altogether from the process via which humans commit evil, while Ash’arism insists that God provides agency but only at the request of human beings. Maturidism and Traditionalism hold that humans basically have enough inherent agency to carry out their will to commit good or evil without any additional grants from God.
Karim H. Karim
- Published in print:
- 2002
- Published Online:
- October 2011
- ISBN:
- 9780195148053
- eISBN:
- 9780199849277
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195148053.003.0018
- Subject:
- Religion, Islam
Whereas the majority of Muslims in Canada are Sunnis, there are substantial Shi'i communities of Isma'ilis and Ithna Ash'aris in almost all major centers. Although the current Canadian Muslim ...
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Whereas the majority of Muslims in Canada are Sunnis, there are substantial Shi'i communities of Isma'ilis and Ithna Ash'aris in almost all major centers. Although the current Canadian Muslim population comes from around the world, the bulk is of South Asian and Arab descent. Virtually all Canadian universities and many high schools have associations of Muslim students. There are many other Muslim associations that have a religious or ethnic focus, some of which have been in existence for decades and others that are transitory. The proliferation of associations indicates that there is no monolithic voice that speaks for all Muslims; different issues are championed by specific organizations, as is made evident in this chapter. Whereas embassy officials from Muslim-majority countries interact with sections of the local community, the heterogeneity of organizations in the Canadian ummah tends to limit their influence.Less
Whereas the majority of Muslims in Canada are Sunnis, there are substantial Shi'i communities of Isma'ilis and Ithna Ash'aris in almost all major centers. Although the current Canadian Muslim population comes from around the world, the bulk is of South Asian and Arab descent. Virtually all Canadian universities and many high schools have associations of Muslim students. There are many other Muslim associations that have a religious or ethnic focus, some of which have been in existence for decades and others that are transitory. The proliferation of associations indicates that there is no monolithic voice that speaks for all Muslims; different issues are championed by specific organizations, as is made evident in this chapter. Whereas embassy officials from Muslim-majority countries interact with sections of the local community, the heterogeneity of organizations in the Canadian ummah tends to limit their influence.
Håkan Rydin and John K. Jeglum
- Published in print:
- 2006
- Published Online:
- April 2010
- ISBN:
- 9780198528722
- eISBN:
- 9780191728211
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198528722.003.0005
- Subject:
- Biology, Ecology
This chapter defines and characterizes peat: its composition, physical, and chemical properties. Peats are organic-rich materials that have accumulated on wet, oxygen-poor substrates by sedentary ...
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This chapter defines and characterizes peat: its composition, physical, and chemical properties. Peats are organic-rich materials that have accumulated on wet, oxygen-poor substrates by sedentary processes. Organic matter content, the inverse of which is ash content, is used to define the limit between peat and non-peat. The fundamental organic properties of peat are determined by botanical origin; Sphagnum, sedge, and woody peat are common types. Peat profiles are sampled by peat corers taking samples either at set depth intervals or by recognizing distinctive horizons of development. Physical, electrochemical, and chemical, organic composition, and interrelationships of peat properties, are reviewed. The relationship between peat and other organic soils is treated.Less
This chapter defines and characterizes peat: its composition, physical, and chemical properties. Peats are organic-rich materials that have accumulated on wet, oxygen-poor substrates by sedentary processes. Organic matter content, the inverse of which is ash content, is used to define the limit between peat and non-peat. The fundamental organic properties of peat are determined by botanical origin; Sphagnum, sedge, and woody peat are common types. Peat profiles are sampled by peat corers taking samples either at set depth intervals or by recognizing distinctive horizons of development. Physical, electrochemical, and chemical, organic composition, and interrelationships of peat properties, are reviewed. The relationship between peat and other organic soils is treated.
Antonella Sorace
- Published in print:
- 2004
- Published Online:
- January 2010
- ISBN:
- 9780199257652
- eISBN:
- 9780191717772
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199257652.003.0010
- Subject:
- Linguistics, Syntax and Morphology
This chapter shows that the Auxiliary Selection Hierarchy provides a generalization that captures the systematic variation exhibited by intransitive verbs in their choice of auxiliary across a number ...
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This chapter shows that the Auxiliary Selection Hierarchy provides a generalization that captures the systematic variation exhibited by intransitive verbs in their choice of auxiliary across a number of languages. By doing so, it offers a stronger empirical basis to a range of observations and data that had been presented in the literature on split intransitivity. The ASH also accounts for the developmental paths followed by second-language learners of Italian and French, who start acquiring auxiliary selection from core verbs and are more likely to retain non-native intuitions with respect to non-core verbs at advanced stages of development. Further research is needed to corroborate the still limited evidence that the ASH may underlie not only auxiliary selection but also other syntactic reflexes of split intransitivity.Less
This chapter shows that the Auxiliary Selection Hierarchy provides a generalization that captures the systematic variation exhibited by intransitive verbs in their choice of auxiliary across a number of languages. By doing so, it offers a stronger empirical basis to a range of observations and data that had been presented in the literature on split intransitivity. The ASH also accounts for the developmental paths followed by second-language learners of Italian and French, who start acquiring auxiliary selection from core verbs and are more likely to retain non-native intuitions with respect to non-core verbs at advanced stages of development. Further research is needed to corroborate the still limited evidence that the ASH may underlie not only auxiliary selection but also other syntactic reflexes of split intransitivity.
Tom Kimmerer
- Published in print:
- 2015
- Published Online:
- January 2017
- ISBN:
- 9780813165660
- eISBN:
- 9780813166681
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- University Press of Kentucky
- DOI:
- 10.5810/kentucky/9780813165660.003.0005
- Subject:
- Biology, Plant Sciences and Forestry
There are five tree species that are long-lived and characteristic of the woodland pasture habitat of the Bluegrass. The same individual trees present in 1779 are still here today. These are bur oak, ...
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There are five tree species that are long-lived and characteristic of the woodland pasture habitat of the Bluegrass. The same individual trees present in 1779 are still here today. These are bur oak, chinkapin oak, Shumard oak, blue ash, and kingnut. Kingnut is also called shellbark hickory. Hybrid red oaks are common and it is often difficult to assign a red oak to a specific species. Other common trees in or around woodland pastures, such as black locust, honeylocust, hackberry, sugar maple, and black maple, were present in the original woodland pastures, but they are not long-lived enough to have persisted, and today’s trees of these species are progeny of the original trees. Today white and green ash are succumbing to the emerald ash borer, but blue ash may be resistant.Less
There are five tree species that are long-lived and characteristic of the woodland pasture habitat of the Bluegrass. The same individual trees present in 1779 are still here today. These are bur oak, chinkapin oak, Shumard oak, blue ash, and kingnut. Kingnut is also called shellbark hickory. Hybrid red oaks are common and it is often difficult to assign a red oak to a specific species. Other common trees in or around woodland pastures, such as black locust, honeylocust, hackberry, sugar maple, and black maple, were present in the original woodland pastures, but they are not long-lived enough to have persisted, and today’s trees of these species are progeny of the original trees. Today white and green ash are succumbing to the emerald ash borer, but blue ash may be resistant.
Greg H. Mack and Barbara A. Nolen
- Published in print:
- 2006
- Published Online:
- November 2020
- ISBN:
- 9780195117769
- eISBN:
- 9780197561201
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/oso/9780195117769.003.0006
- Subject:
- Environmental Science, Applied Ecology
Within the area around Las Cruces, New Mexico, is a network of studies both at the Jornada Experimental Range (JER) and the Chihuahuan Desert Rangeland Research Center ...
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Within the area around Las Cruces, New Mexico, is a network of studies both at the Jornada Experimental Range (JER) and the Chihuahuan Desert Rangeland Research Center (CDRRC), which includes the Desert Soil-Geomorphology Project. All of these research entities are in the Chihuahuan Desert; this chapter describes the geologic history and development of landscapes that are important elements to our understanding of this ecosystem and its dynamic nature. Southern New Mexico consists of C3 shrubs and C4 grasses in the lower elevations surrounded by C3 woodlands and juniper savannas in the higher elevations (Dick-Peddie 1993; see also chapter 10). Although the boundary of the Chihuahuan Desert has differed slightly depending on whether it was based on vegetative or climatic criteria, the boundary most widely used is based on a de Martonne aridity index of 10 (Schmidt 1979). Like many deserts of the world, the Chihuahuan Desert is in a zone of dry, high-pressure cells near 30° latitude; is relatively far from marine moisture sources; and occupies a position in which mountains scavenge moisture from weather fronts (Strahler and Strahler 1987). The orographic influence is especially important in Mexico, which contains about threefourths of the Chihuahuan Desert, because the desert is bounded to the west by the Sierra Madre Occidental and to the east by the Sierra Madre Oriental Mountains. The basin and range province consists of north–south trending mountain ranges and broad intervening desert basins that at the Jornada Basin site is the product of the Rio Grande rift tectonic system, which has been active since middle tertiary time (Seager 1975; Seager et al. 1984). Erosion of the steeply tilted mountain ranges has been the main source of sediment for the filling of the intermontane basins. Vertically, sedimentary deposits are separated by paleosols that indicate quiescent times following periods of erosion and sedimentation. As the basins filled with sediment, pore spaces between sediment particles filled with water from rain, making these structural basins large reservoirs of ground water (Hawley and Lozinsky 1992; Hawley and Kennedy 2004).
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Within the area around Las Cruces, New Mexico, is a network of studies both at the Jornada Experimental Range (JER) and the Chihuahuan Desert Rangeland Research Center (CDRRC), which includes the Desert Soil-Geomorphology Project. All of these research entities are in the Chihuahuan Desert; this chapter describes the geologic history and development of landscapes that are important elements to our understanding of this ecosystem and its dynamic nature. Southern New Mexico consists of C3 shrubs and C4 grasses in the lower elevations surrounded by C3 woodlands and juniper savannas in the higher elevations (Dick-Peddie 1993; see also chapter 10). Although the boundary of the Chihuahuan Desert has differed slightly depending on whether it was based on vegetative or climatic criteria, the boundary most widely used is based on a de Martonne aridity index of 10 (Schmidt 1979). Like many deserts of the world, the Chihuahuan Desert is in a zone of dry, high-pressure cells near 30° latitude; is relatively far from marine moisture sources; and occupies a position in which mountains scavenge moisture from weather fronts (Strahler and Strahler 1987). The orographic influence is especially important in Mexico, which contains about threefourths of the Chihuahuan Desert, because the desert is bounded to the west by the Sierra Madre Occidental and to the east by the Sierra Madre Oriental Mountains. The basin and range province consists of north–south trending mountain ranges and broad intervening desert basins that at the Jornada Basin site is the product of the Rio Grande rift tectonic system, which has been active since middle tertiary time (Seager 1975; Seager et al. 1984). Erosion of the steeply tilted mountain ranges has been the main source of sediment for the filling of the intermontane basins. Vertically, sedimentary deposits are separated by paleosols that indicate quiescent times following periods of erosion and sedimentation. As the basins filled with sediment, pore spaces between sediment particles filled with water from rain, making these structural basins large reservoirs of ground water (Hawley and Lozinsky 1992; Hawley and Kennedy 2004).
Mohammad Hassan Khalil
- Published in print:
- 2012
- Published Online:
- September 2012
- ISBN:
- 9780199796663
- eISBN:
- 9780199933082
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199796663.003.0002
- Subject:
- Religion, Islam
Abu Hamid al-Ghazali (d. 1111) is arguably the most widely recognized scholar in Islamic intellectual history. In his discussions of the fate of non-Muslims, he argues that God, out of His mercy, ...
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Abu Hamid al-Ghazali (d. 1111) is arguably the most widely recognized scholar in Islamic intellectual history. In his discussions of the fate of non-Muslims, he argues that God, out of His mercy, will save certain non-Muslims. Ghazali also maintains an optimistic vision of salvation on the Day of Judgment. This chapter is a discussion of Ghazali’s views on the salvation of non-Muslims, and includes a brief look at the related writings of the much later Indian theologian Shah Wali Allah (d. 1762) of Delhi. al-Ghazali.Less
Abu Hamid al-Ghazali (d. 1111) is arguably the most widely recognized scholar in Islamic intellectual history. In his discussions of the fate of non-Muslims, he argues that God, out of His mercy, will save certain non-Muslims. Ghazali also maintains an optimistic vision of salvation on the Day of Judgment. This chapter is a discussion of Ghazali’s views on the salvation of non-Muslims, and includes a brief look at the related writings of the much later Indian theologian Shah Wali Allah (d. 1762) of Delhi. al-Ghazali.
Marianne E. Krasny and Keith G. Tidball
- Published in print:
- 2015
- Published Online:
- September 2015
- ISBN:
- 9780262028653
- eISBN:
- 9780262327169
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- The MIT Press
- DOI:
- 10.7551/mitpress/9780262028653.003.0007
- Subject:
- Environmental Science, Environmental Studies
Hundreds of studies have documented the benefits of being able to see nature, and to take or walk or otherwise be in nature, on human health and well-being. These benefits may be physical, like ...
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Hundreds of studies have documented the benefits of being able to see nature, and to take or walk or otherwise be in nature, on human health and well-being. These benefits may be physical, like reducing stress and recovery times in hospitals, cognitive like increasing concentration and the ability to do well on problem-solving tests, and social interactions as when trees in cities provide a place for people to gather, share stories, create social bonds and even reduce crime rates. A handful of studies have also documented the impact of actively stewarding nature on well-being, including enabling older adults to feel as if they are leaving a legacy for their children and grandchildren and for the environment. Other stewardship outcomes include feelings of accomplishment or self-efficacy and of empowerment. Because civic ecology practices involve both being in nature and actively stewarding nature, we can expect significant health and well-being outcomes for civic ecology stewards.Less
Hundreds of studies have documented the benefits of being able to see nature, and to take or walk or otherwise be in nature, on human health and well-being. These benefits may be physical, like reducing stress and recovery times in hospitals, cognitive like increasing concentration and the ability to do well on problem-solving tests, and social interactions as when trees in cities provide a place for people to gather, share stories, create social bonds and even reduce crime rates. A handful of studies have also documented the impact of actively stewarding nature on well-being, including enabling older adults to feel as if they are leaving a legacy for their children and grandchildren and for the environment. Other stewardship outcomes include feelings of accomplishment or self-efficacy and of empowerment. Because civic ecology practices involve both being in nature and actively stewarding nature, we can expect significant health and well-being outcomes for civic ecology stewards.
Livnat Holtzman
- Published in print:
- 2018
- Published Online:
- September 2018
- ISBN:
- 9780748689569
- eISBN:
- 9781474444828
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Edinburgh University Press
- DOI:
- 10.3366/edinburgh/9780748689569.003.0004
- Subject:
- Religion, Islam
This chapter spotlights the gestures (ishāra pl. ishārāt) which the teachers of Hadith (muḥaddithūn) performed while transmitting aḥādīth al-ṣifāt. The use of gestures in the context of aḥādīth ...
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This chapter spotlights the gestures (ishāra pl. ishārāt) which the teachers of Hadith (muḥaddithūn) performed while transmitting aḥādīth al-ṣifāt. The use of gestures in the context of aḥādīth al-ṣifāt entailed doctrinal and theological implications, and was in itself a matter of dispute. The performers of gestures among the muḥaddithūn of the seventh and eighth centuries, like Thabit al-Bunani (d. 740) and Harmala ibn ʿImran (d. 777) attributed the gestures to the Prophet and the ṣaḥāba. These muḥaddithūn perceived the gestures as iconic, namely gestures that display a concrete scene. The muḥaddith who in particular promoted the trend of performing gestures was Hammad ibn Salama (d. 784), and this chapter elaborates on his scholarly activity and public performances. Finally, this chapter evaluates the hermeneutical solutions to the gestures that accompanied the recitation of the anthropomorphic verses in the Quran and aḥādīth al-ṣifāt. These solutions were offered by the Hadith scholars who were active between the eleventh and the thirteenth centuries. These scholars, who were mostly Ashʿarites, tended to interpret the gestures as metaphoric, namely gestures representing abstract concepts. The chapter concludes with the unique discussion of the Hanbalite Ibn al-Jawzi (d. 1201) on the topic of gestures and aḥādīth al-ṣifāt.
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This chapter spotlights the gestures (ishāra pl. ishārāt) which the teachers of Hadith (muḥaddithūn) performed while transmitting aḥādīth al-ṣifāt. The use of gestures in the context of aḥādīth al-ṣifāt entailed doctrinal and theological implications, and was in itself a matter of dispute. The performers of gestures among the muḥaddithūn of the seventh and eighth centuries, like Thabit al-Bunani (d. 740) and Harmala ibn ʿImran (d. 777) attributed the gestures to the Prophet and the ṣaḥāba. These muḥaddithūn perceived the gestures as iconic, namely gestures that display a concrete scene. The muḥaddith who in particular promoted the trend of performing gestures was Hammad ibn Salama (d. 784), and this chapter elaborates on his scholarly activity and public performances. Finally, this chapter evaluates the hermeneutical solutions to the gestures that accompanied the recitation of the anthropomorphic verses in the Quran and aḥādīth al-ṣifāt. These solutions were offered by the Hadith scholars who were active between the eleventh and the thirteenth centuries. These scholars, who were mostly Ashʿarites, tended to interpret the gestures as metaphoric, namely gestures representing abstract concepts. The chapter concludes with the unique discussion of the Hanbalite Ibn al-Jawzi (d. 1201) on the topic of gestures and aḥādīth al-ṣifāt.
Livnat Holtzman
- Published in print:
- 2018
- Published Online:
- September 2018
- ISBN:
- 9780748689569
- eISBN:
- 9781474444828
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Edinburgh University Press
- DOI:
- 10.3366/edinburgh/9780748689569.003.0005
- Subject:
- Religion, Islam
This chapter examines the challenges that aḥādīth al-ṣifāt posed to the traditionalists, and the way the traditionalists met these challenges through the implementation of the bi-lā kayfa formula. ...
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This chapter examines the challenges that aḥādīth al-ṣifāt posed to the traditionalists, and the way the traditionalists met these challenges through the implementation of the bi-lā kayfa formula. According to the traditionalists, this formula meant ‘without asking further questions’. The Ashʿarites used this formula to dissociate any improper description from God. They named this concept tanzīh. The chapter presents the traditionalistic understanding of bi-lā kayfa through the work of Ibn Qutayba (d. 889). The Ashʿarite understanding of bi-lā kayfa is presented through the work of Ibn Furak (d. 1015). The lion’s share of this chapter presents the case-study of what is undoubtedly the most extreme text in the repertoire of aḥādīth al-ṣifāt, namely ḥadīth ḥaqw al-raḥmān, ‘the ḥadīth about the loin of the Merciful’. The chapter examines the transmission process of this text and focuses on several techniques that enabled the acceptance of this text in the Islamic canon. The chapter in particular considers the creative three-stage hermeneutical solution to ḥadīth ḥaqw al-raḥmān in the writings of Ibn Hajar al-ʿAsqalani (d. 1449), Badr al-Din al-ʿAyni (d. 1451), and Shihab al-Din al-Qastallani (d. 1517). Their hermeneutical solution added a new dimension to the Ashʿarite tanzīh and was inspired by Muʿtazilite thinkers.Less
This chapter examines the challenges that aḥādīth al-ṣifāt posed to the traditionalists, and the way the traditionalists met these challenges through the implementation of the bi-lā kayfa formula. According to the traditionalists, this formula meant ‘without asking further questions’. The Ashʿarites used this formula to dissociate any improper description from God. They named this concept tanzīh. The chapter presents the traditionalistic understanding of bi-lā kayfa through the work of Ibn Qutayba (d. 889). The Ashʿarite understanding of bi-lā kayfa is presented through the work of Ibn Furak (d. 1015). The lion’s share of this chapter presents the case-study of what is undoubtedly the most extreme text in the repertoire of aḥādīth al-ṣifāt, namely ḥadīth ḥaqw al-raḥmān, ‘the ḥadīth about the loin of the Merciful’. The chapter examines the transmission process of this text and focuses on several techniques that enabled the acceptance of this text in the Islamic canon. The chapter in particular considers the creative three-stage hermeneutical solution to ḥadīth ḥaqw al-raḥmān in the writings of Ibn Hajar al-ʿAsqalani (d. 1449), Badr al-Din al-ʿAyni (d. 1451), and Shihab al-Din al-Qastallani (d. 1517). Their hermeneutical solution added a new dimension to the Ashʿarite tanzīh and was inspired by Muʿtazilite thinkers.
Livnat Holtzman
- Published in print:
- 2018
- Published Online:
- September 2018
- ISBN:
- 9780748689569
- eISBN:
- 9781474444828
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Edinburgh University Press
- DOI:
- 10.3366/edinburgh/9780748689569.003.0006
- Subject:
- Religion, Islam
This chapter examines the ubiquitous presence of aḥādīth al-ṣifāt in the public sphere by focusing on four iconic texts: the caliphal Qadiri Creed, Ibn Khuzayma’s (d. 924) Kitāb al-Tawḥid, Fakhr ...
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This chapter examines the ubiquitous presence of aḥādīth al-ṣifāt in the public sphere by focusing on four iconic texts: the caliphal Qadiri Creed, Ibn Khuzayma’s (d. 924) Kitāb al-Tawḥid, Fakhr al-Din al-Razi’s (d. 1210) Asās al-Taqdīs and Ibn Taymiyya’s (d. 1328) al-Ḥamawiyya al-Kubrā. These iconic texts, which offer various discussions of aḥādīth al-ṣifāt, stood at the centre of public attention, and were revered as objects of political power. This chapter fully unfolds the connection between these four texts, and the role that they played in political events that took place in different venues from tenth century Nishapur to fourteenth century Damascus. Both the extremely popular Asās al-Taqdīs and al-Ḥamawiyya al-Kubrā ignited a public controversy about the performance of two iconic gestures that were linked to the recitations of aḥādīth al-ṣifāt: pointing the index finger heavenward and raising both hands in prayer. The chapter highlights al-Ḥamawiyya al-Kubrā’s iconicity by addressing the derogative name ḥashwiyya (vulgar anthropomorphists) which was central to this public controversy. The iconic books and gestures that are discussed in this chapter underscore the interface between theology and politics, and reveal a layer as yet unknown of the controversy between the ultra-traditionalists (Hanbalites) and the rational-traditionalists (the later Ashʿarites).Less
This chapter examines the ubiquitous presence of aḥādīth al-ṣifāt in the public sphere by focusing on four iconic texts: the caliphal Qadiri Creed, Ibn Khuzayma’s (d. 924) Kitāb al-Tawḥid, Fakhr al-Din al-Razi’s (d. 1210) Asās al-Taqdīs and Ibn Taymiyya’s (d. 1328) al-Ḥamawiyya al-Kubrā. These iconic texts, which offer various discussions of aḥādīth al-ṣifāt, stood at the centre of public attention, and were revered as objects of political power. This chapter fully unfolds the connection between these four texts, and the role that they played in political events that took place in different venues from tenth century Nishapur to fourteenth century Damascus. Both the extremely popular Asās al-Taqdīs and al-Ḥamawiyya al-Kubrā ignited a public controversy about the performance of two iconic gestures that were linked to the recitations of aḥādīth al-ṣifāt: pointing the index finger heavenward and raising both hands in prayer. The chapter highlights al-Ḥamawiyya al-Kubrā’s iconicity by addressing the derogative name ḥashwiyya (vulgar anthropomorphists) which was central to this public controversy. The iconic books and gestures that are discussed in this chapter underscore the interface between theology and politics, and reveal a layer as yet unknown of the controversy between the ultra-traditionalists (Hanbalites) and the rational-traditionalists (the later Ashʿarites).
