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This chapter continues the emphasis on cross-regional comparison, addressing the role of both transnational and national actors by focusing on World Bank-funded rural development projects. The question is to what degree the World Bank's ostensibly new-style projects actually contributed to the ‘enabling environment’ that allow poor people to consolidate representative organizations. The term ‘enabling environments’ refers to the institutional context that either facilitates or blocks the collective action that is critical to providing leverage and voice to under-represented people. The study documents whether or not enabling environments were in fact created by assessing the degree to which the projects complied with the World Bank's own policy reforms involving public information disclosure and informed participation by indigenous peoples. The study documents outcomes, both across projects and across regions within projects. With few exceptions, the projects did not significantly improve the enabling policy environment for the organizations of the rural poor.

Fisheries are of key importance in provision of protein, livelihood opportunities and income to islanders and coastal populations with few alternative food sources, including some of the world's poorest people. The variety of reef fisheries of both invertebrate and vertebrate resources around the world is examined. Methods used and particular issues with these fisheries are discussed. Exploitation of reef resources also occurs to supply luxury food markets, and the international live reef fish trade is highlighted. The development of reef-based aquaculture is examined, and issues that need to be addressed to deliver sustainable expansion of this approach are discussed. In the face of increasing pressures on reef resources from a number of sources, resultant impacts on reef renewable resources are detailed, and potential ways in which these pressures may be managed and controlled are described.

Freshwater community-based aquaculture was introduced to village irrigation tanks in the dry zone of Sri Lanka in order to offset the limited supply of animal proteins available to residents in inland areas. As village irrigation tanks are common property resources (CPRs), community-based aquaculture demands collective action by farmer groups. This chapter shows that the values generated by aquaculture are not adequate to provide a major livelihood for all members of a given community. The sustainability of community-based aquaculture depends on the success of experimenting with institutional arrangements that can, on the one hand, minimize transaction costs and, on the other, achieve adequate returns for participants through productivity gains from tanks.

This chapter considers the uses made of estuaries, and then examines the various responses of estuarine organisms to each usage. It looks at many forms of pollution separately, but also (because they rarely act in isolation), in combination, as well as other types of stress on the system resulting from Man's uses. The categories of change due to human activities in the estuarine ecosystem are: the presence of xenobiotics and toxins, physical additions, energy change, physical structures, the over-stimulation of biota, the input of non-indigenous organisms, and the production of a mutagenic response. The categories of pollutants are: trace metals, synthetic organic compounds, hydrocarbons, radioactivity, inert (physical) materials, nutrients, organic matter, energy, and, alien organisms.

This chapter discusses ancient aquaculture and the differences between fresh water and marine aquaculture, and between extensive and intensive aquaculture. The core of the chapter deals with the typology of Roman marine fishponds and their technical specifications. It distinguishes between the simple rock-cut fishponds found in association with fish-salting establishments, which were used to hold the catch alive for short periods of time, and the elaborate structures found at villas, which show the mixing of freshwater, richer in oxygen, with sea water; this allowed for intensive fish farming. The chapter also discusses the origins of marine fish farming and its chronology.

Viewing human well-being from the two perspectives of capabilities and sustainable freedoms, this chapter attempts to interpret capability enhancement in the context of achieving sustainable freedoms for identified social groups. It argues that in the presence of fast growing economies, the ‘resilience and adaptive change approach’ as applied dynamically to social systems and their evolution over time provides one standard against which a listing of capabilities may make a great deal of sense. Expansion of individual capabilities depends on the nature of linkages between the sub-group to which she/he belongs and other parts of the social system. The question this chapter poses is: Could an understanding of the concept of ‘dynamic resilience’ of the social system over successive cycles of development be significant in listing capabilities of individuals and determining which are critical in ensuring that development as freedom is sustainable? This chapter focuses on a study of an aquaculture export initiated development experience, in particular the setting up of multiple indices of well-being for categories of stakeholders in the Indian state of West Bengal to further elucidate and substantiate the above hypothesis. It argues that developing further the links between the capability approach to well-being, in particular its expansion to sustainable freedoms and the ‘resilience network approach’ to social systems, will throw more light on the nature of sustainable well-being.

Since the 1990s, EU actors have embarked upon a project of sustainable development. Understanding sectoral integration to be the core political process through which sustainable development is given meaning, the chapter argues that a focus on industry is central for any critical assessment of EU sustainable development policy to be made. The chapter presents research findings on the transformation of European sea fisheries and aquaculture to show actors' political usages of social constructions of sustainable development to bring about change. Contrary to scholarship which considers EU sustainable development to be merely symbolic, the findings presented here show it instead to be the primary struggle within public and private regulation. However, the power of this concept was seen more as a resource for private actors to bring about change within their industry as part of their competitive strategies, than as a new regulatory device for Commission officials to ‘govern’ European industry.

Human development, inspiration, invention, and aspiration have resulted in a rapidly growing population, with each generation aspiring to greater wealth and well-being, so having greater needs than the previous generation. Amongst the resulting negative impacts are over-exploitation of planetary resources and the build-up of gases in the atmosphere and oceans to the extent that they are changing earth’s climate and ocean chemistry (IPCC 2007). However, the history of humanity’s relationship to the environment has shown that, if threatened, society can respond rapidly to environmental risks, introducing better practices, controls, regulations, and even global protocols, for example the reduction of city smog, the move from leaded to unleaded petrol, and reduction of chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) production to reduce loss of the ozone layer. Nearly all of these changes have led to direct and obvious positive gain to human health and well-being which has been a driving force in the production, agreement and implementation of the policies and laws that have brought them about. The spatial scale or ‘ecological footprint’ of these risks has increased with time, such that international agreements and protocols, like the Montreal Protocol for CFCs, have been increasingly necessary for reducing them. Along with the globalization of agriculture, business, industry, and financial markets and the expansion of the human population goes the globalization of risk to the environment. Climate change and ocean acidification are global issues with solutions that are only possible through global agreements and action. Substantial proportions of nations’ gross domestic product (GDP) were used to secure the banks and major industries in the economic crises that have swept the world in the last few years, far greater than the 1 to 2% per annum estimated to be required to mitigate climate change (Stern 2006). However, the response to the economic crisis does show that global society can react rapidly when it believes it is necessary. The question is, when do society and governments deem it necessary to act, and to act together? One issue may be time, the perceived immediacy of the crisis.

This chapter addresses transgenic salmon, and then explores the marketing of the patented AquAdvantage salmon and the current resistance from within the salmon aquaculture industry. It also considers the competitive pressures favoring adoption of this technology and the countervailing forces that act as a brake on the technology treadmill. The scientific uncertainties, public perceptions, and competing discourses about transgenic salmon are described. Observations about regulation-centered conflicts that will likely be the focus of social resistance are presented, which is facilitated by the aquaculture industry's reluctance to embrace commercial production of transgenic salmon. A/F Protein must address salmon farmers' concerns both about efficiency reductions due to triploidy and about the costs of licensing and other expenses. Salmon farmers identify two dangers to the industry posed by environmental concerns about transgenic fish. The arguments about risks from escaped genetically engineered fish show the scientific uncertainties associated with deployment of transgenic salmon.

This introductory chapter presents a description of the life history stages of fishes, from the egg/embryonic stage to the adult stage, focusing on the early parts of development and growth (early life history) which are the embryonic, larval and juvenile stages. It also presents the types of early life history studies conducted on fishes, including studies done on recruitment fluctuations, population assessment, aquaculture, and conservation studies. This chapter also discusses the integration of basic and applied science, in relation to studies on fish biology and ecology. The concluding discussion of this chapter presents the current literature in the study of early life history of fishes.

This chapter addresses the evidence for major trends in demography, settlement, economic intensification, specialization, monumental architecture, and other material correlates of sociopolitical transformation. The material evidence of monumentality provides critical evidence regarding the ways in which the Hawaiian elites employed ritual and ideology to increase their control over the political economy, and to legitimate their claims to divine rule. The vast majority of Hawai'i Island's production had to come from intensive dryland field systems. The western half of the archipelago was doubly fortunate: where irrigation and aquaculture could be intensified the most, there were also the richest and largest stocks of marine resources. The emergence of archaic states in Hawai'i was a process rather than an event. Throughout the Protohistoric Period, Hawai'i Island cycled through unification and fission, frequently unable to maintain the overarching control first achieved by 'Umi.

This chapter tests the aiming big hypothesis by tracing the origin and evolution of four eco-labeling organizations in sustainable aquaculture: the Aquaculture Stewardship Council (ASC), Best Aquaculture Practices (BAP), Friend of the Sea (FOS), and Naturland. The chapter argues that stronger adherence to best practices in the ASC and BAP programs is a direct result of their decision to target large multinational retailers for certification. Conversely, the comparatively poor performance of the other two eco-labeling organizations can be traced to their decisions to target smaller firms in domestic markets. The chapter uses comparative case studies and within-case process tracing to reveal how decisions about who to target for certification impacted best practice adherence through the causal mechanisms outlined in chapter 3. The four cases analyzed in this chapter cast further doubt on alternate theories of credibility, such as the relevance of ownership or geographic location to credibility.

Rights to public participation have developed in Norwegian law over the last four decades. The development has partly been by means of legislation and partly by the courts. This chapter examines how rights to public participation in the narrow sense have been established in Norway, a country where energy and resource development is especially important both in relative and absolute terms. It chooses four different important sectors to illustrate how public participation might function in concrete contexts: oil and gas development, hydro-power generation, mining, and aquaculture or fish farming.

This chapter begins by providing a historical account of the development of rearing and culture of marine species, including the work done by large-scale marine fish rearing in re-stocking natural populations through juvenile releases to the wild. The chapter also discusses the methods of experimental fish culture, including specific topics as the obtaining of gametes, artificial insemination, fish feeding, and the factors that affect growth and survival of reared marine fishes, which include rearing containers, water quality, light relations, and water temperature. Discussions on the types and areas of experimental studies for fish culture and rearing are presented as well; these areas of study include embryonic development and endogenous nutrition, food requirements and feeding behavior, and responses to predation and pollution.

This chapter explores the potential impact of manipulative parasites on several areas of conservation, economic, or medical relevance. These include facilitation of biological invasions, as seen when non-specific parasites have different effects on native and exotic hosts; host productivity in agriculture and aquaculture such as Echinococcus cestodes in sheep and Diplostomum trematodes in fish; enhanced transmission of vector-borne disease, such as malaria transmission by mosquitos; ariation in personality among people, which may be affected by Toxoplasma infection; and development of severe neurological or psychiatric disorders, such as the apparent link between Toxoplasma and schizophrenia. Case studies are used to illustrate these phenomena, aiming to bring host manipulation out from the esoteric closet and into the scientific mainstream.

Humans try to predict the timing and severity of disturbances to better reduce their negative impacts on biodiversity and ecosystem services, yet disturbances are an integral part of our lives. To survive, humans have adapted to disturbances that we cannot manage and manipulated those that we can. The recent and rapid growth of human populations has exacerbated interactions between humans and disturbances and made modern disaster management a necessary survival strategy. Expanding our knowledge about disturbance regimes (the sum of all disturbances at a given site) can help reduce future impacts. Wise stewardship of ecosystems includes conservation of natural areas and efficient restoration of ecosystems following a disturbance. It also includes managing the disturbance regime to maximize not just biodiversity or ecosystem services, but the particular use of a chosen parcel of land. This chapter first addresses historical management of disturbance through agriculture and aquaculture, then examines the goals and approaches of conservation and restoration.