Perri 6
- Published in print:
- 2010
- Published Online:
- September 2010
- ISBN:
- 9780199573547
- eISBN:
- 9780191722677
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199573547.003.0003
- Subject:
- Business and Management, Public Management, Organization Studies
To expect to find a theory to explain the causes of all and only unintended or unanticipated consequences is no more reasonable than hoping for a general theory of misfortunes. Yet something useful ...
More
To expect to find a theory to explain the causes of all and only unintended or unanticipated consequences is no more reasonable than hoping for a general theory of misfortunes. Yet something useful of a general character can be achieved by developing clear conceptual frameworks of definition, classification, and typology. Such frameworks can enable structured comparison, better measurement, and clearer questions with which to distinguish the different kinds of puzzles for which theories and explanations are required. This chapter offers part of such a general framework. First, it considers some key strands of research of unintended and unanticipated consequences in the social sciences, and identifies some limitations in these bodies of work. Then the key terms of ‘surprise’, ‘anticipation’, ‘intention’, and ‘welcome’ are examined, that go to make up an initial, coarse-grained typology. This tool is used to consider similarities and differences between the cases examined in other chapters in this volume. The chapter concludes by identifying a key conceptual and theoretical issue for further work in the next generation of research in this field.Less
To expect to find a theory to explain the causes of all and only unintended or unanticipated consequences is no more reasonable than hoping for a general theory of misfortunes. Yet something useful of a general character can be achieved by developing clear conceptual frameworks of definition, classification, and typology. Such frameworks can enable structured comparison, better measurement, and clearer questions with which to distinguish the different kinds of puzzles for which theories and explanations are required. This chapter offers part of such a general framework. First, it considers some key strands of research of unintended and unanticipated consequences in the social sciences, and identifies some limitations in these bodies of work. Then the key terms of ‘surprise’, ‘anticipation’, ‘intention’, and ‘welcome’ are examined, that go to make up an initial, coarse-grained typology. This tool is used to consider similarities and differences between the cases examined in other chapters in this volume. The chapter concludes by identifying a key conceptual and theoretical issue for further work in the next generation of research in this field.
Peter Politser
- Published in print:
- 2008
- Published Online:
- May 2008
- ISBN:
- 9780195305821
- eISBN:
- 9780199867783
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195305821.003.0003
- Subject:
- Psychology, Cognitive Psychology
This chapter examines the economic components of the capacity to evaluate outcomes. It considers the diagnostic and management components of anticipation. Possible measures of diagnostic and ...
More
This chapter examines the economic components of the capacity to evaluate outcomes. It considers the diagnostic and management components of anticipation. Possible measures of diagnostic and management evaluations as well as their neural correlates and possible disturbances are described. As a starting point for readers, the chapter simplifies the discussion of neurobiological findings and economic models.Less
This chapter examines the economic components of the capacity to evaluate outcomes. It considers the diagnostic and management components of anticipation. Possible measures of diagnostic and management evaluations as well as their neural correlates and possible disturbances are described. As a starting point for readers, the chapter simplifies the discussion of neurobiological findings and economic models.
Clive Brown
- Published in print:
- 1999
- Published Online:
- May 2008
- ISBN:
- 9780198161653
- eISBN:
- 9780191716263
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198161653.003.0016
- Subject:
- Music, Ethnomusicology, World Music
This chapter begins with a discussion of terminology, identifying a variety of meanings applied to the word portamento, and a number of related terms, such as cercar dells nota, messa di voce ...
More
This chapter begins with a discussion of terminology, identifying a variety of meanings applied to the word portamento, and a number of related terms, such as cercar dells nota, messa di voce crescente (or decrescente), port de voix, slur, and Tragen (or Durchziehen) der Töne. It looks at the growing employment of a variety of sliding effects in singing, string playing, and even wind playing from the 18th century to the beginning of the 20th century. Different types of portamento (for instance, Corri's ‘leaping grace’ and ‘anticipation grace’) and their execution are discussed in relation to theoretical sources. The evidence of treatises and composers' or editors' fingerings in string music of the period, supported by early recordings, forms the basis of a discussion of the employment of portamento in the music of the period.Less
This chapter begins with a discussion of terminology, identifying a variety of meanings applied to the word portamento, and a number of related terms, such as cercar dells nota, messa di voce crescente (or decrescente), port de voix, slur, and Tragen (or Durchziehen) der Töne. It looks at the growing employment of a variety of sliding effects in singing, string playing, and even wind playing from the 18th century to the beginning of the 20th century. Different types of portamento (for instance, Corri's ‘leaping grace’ and ‘anticipation grace’) and their execution are discussed in relation to theoretical sources. The evidence of treatises and composers' or editors' fingerings in string music of the period, supported by early recordings, forms the basis of a discussion of the employment of portamento in the music of the period.
Amartya Sen
- Published in print:
- 1991
- Published Online:
- January 2008
- ISBN:
- 9780198286356
- eISBN:
- 9780191718465
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198286356.003.0002
- Subject:
- Economics and Finance, Development, Growth, and Environmental
Putting the acquirement problem at the heart of hunger and starvation issues, this book argues that the entitlement approach, much in line with the old traditions of economics preoccupied with ...
More
Putting the acquirement problem at the heart of hunger and starvation issues, this book argues that the entitlement approach, much in line with the old traditions of economics preoccupied with acquirement, can provide a general perspective to analyse effectively hunger and food policy requirements. To lower the degree of vulnerability to famine and starvation, this book raises a number of short-run issues such as famine anticipation, famine relief (food distribution vs. cash relief), and the role of food supply and food prices in famine, and some long-term policy concerns such as enhancing, securing, and guaranteeing entitlement, and diversification of production patterns.Less
Putting the acquirement problem at the heart of hunger and starvation issues, this book argues that the entitlement approach, much in line with the old traditions of economics preoccupied with acquirement, can provide a general perspective to analyse effectively hunger and food policy requirements. To lower the degree of vulnerability to famine and starvation, this book raises a number of short-run issues such as famine anticipation, famine relief (food distribution vs. cash relief), and the role of food supply and food prices in famine, and some long-term policy concerns such as enhancing, securing, and guaranteeing entitlement, and diversification of production patterns.
Wolfram Schultz and Leon Tremblay
- Published in print:
- 2006
- Published Online:
- February 2010
- ISBN:
- 9780198565741
- eISBN:
- 9780191723971
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198565741.003.0007
- Subject:
- Neuroscience, Behavioral Neuroscience
This chapter reviews studies using neurophysiological recordings of the orbitofrontal cortex in behaving monkeys in order to understand the brain's representation of predictable future events of ...
More
This chapter reviews studies using neurophysiological recordings of the orbitofrontal cortex in behaving monkeys in order to understand the brain's representation of predictable future events of motivational significance. Orbitofrontal neurons respond to rewards and reward-related stimuli, and these responses are differentially and dynamically attributed through learning to events of specific motivational valence (rewards and punishers). Orbitofrontal neurons discriminate between different rewards based on quantity or preference, and adaptively respond to changes in reward contingencies. Critically, these reward-related responses are also activated in anticipation of future events. This expectation-related activity shows appropriate adaptations during learning allowing a transition from previous or default representations to expectations that are updated by the latest experience. The processing of reward predicting stimuli by the orbitofrontal cortex helps to reduce the uncertainty about which rewards will be available in the immediate future, helping to optimize decision-making in the face of risk and ambiguity.Less
This chapter reviews studies using neurophysiological recordings of the orbitofrontal cortex in behaving monkeys in order to understand the brain's representation of predictable future events of motivational significance. Orbitofrontal neurons respond to rewards and reward-related stimuli, and these responses are differentially and dynamically attributed through learning to events of specific motivational valence (rewards and punishers). Orbitofrontal neurons discriminate between different rewards based on quantity or preference, and adaptively respond to changes in reward contingencies. Critically, these reward-related responses are also activated in anticipation of future events. This expectation-related activity shows appropriate adaptations during learning allowing a transition from previous or default representations to expectations that are updated by the latest experience. The processing of reward predicting stimuli by the orbitofrontal cortex helps to reduce the uncertainty about which rewards will be available in the immediate future, helping to optimize decision-making in the face of risk and ambiguity.
Charles Siewert
- Published in print:
- 2005
- Published Online:
- May 2010
- ISBN:
- 9780199272457
- eISBN:
- 9780191709951
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199272457.003.0014
- Subject:
- Philosophy, Philosophy of Mind
In Phenomenology of Perception, Merleau–Ponty holds that sensory consciousness of place exhibits an indeterminacy that shows it is, in a sense, non-representational. But he thinks this does not ...
More
In Phenomenology of Perception, Merleau–Ponty holds that sensory consciousness of place exhibits an indeterminacy that shows it is, in a sense, non-representational. But he thinks this does not preclude its having a kind of intentionality. This chapter offers an interpretation and defense of this view. Directing visual attention involves changes to the phenomenal character of experience that cannot be specified by attributing verbal or imagistic content to it. In that sense the character of experience is non-representational. And partly because our anticipation of future experience is not to be construed in terms of beliefs incorporating sensorimotor conditionals, these attentional changes in experience are not conceivable independently of the exercise of sensorimotor skills. However, experience is assessable as correct or illusory in virtue of having such character. Thus, visual experience has, in virtue of its phenomenal character, a distinctively sensorimotor kind of intentionality.Less
In Phenomenology of Perception, Merleau–Ponty holds that sensory consciousness of place exhibits an indeterminacy that shows it is, in a sense, non-representational. But he thinks this does not preclude its having a kind of intentionality. This chapter offers an interpretation and defense of this view. Directing visual attention involves changes to the phenomenal character of experience that cannot be specified by attributing verbal or imagistic content to it. In that sense the character of experience is non-representational. And partly because our anticipation of future experience is not to be construed in terms of beliefs incorporating sensorimotor conditionals, these attentional changes in experience are not conceivable independently of the exercise of sensorimotor skills. However, experience is assessable as correct or illusory in virtue of having such character. Thus, visual experience has, in virtue of its phenomenal character, a distinctively sensorimotor kind of intentionality.
Mark Fenton-O'Creevy, Nigel Nicholson, Emma Soane, and Paul Willman
- Published in print:
- 2004
- Published Online:
- October 2011
- ISBN:
- 9780199269488
- eISBN:
- 9780191699405
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199269488.003.0007
- Subject:
- Business and Management, Finance, Accounting, and Banking, Organization Studies
Becoming a trader does not mean that one has to be familiarized with merely one body of fixed knowledge. Traders are exposed to various intensive experiences that may or may not involve powerful ...
More
Becoming a trader does not mean that one has to be familiarized with merely one body of fixed knowledge. Traders are exposed to various intensive experiences that may or may not involve powerful emotions, losses, and gains. To become a trader, one has to explore new ways of doing things, learn how to adapt to new situations, know when to modify decision rules, and learn how to use history and experience to make confident decisions in a short period of time. This chapter takes in the experiential and psychological factors that influence the individual development of the trader and further develop trading skills by explaining the implications of formal and informal socialization, and presenting a transitions model that involves the following processes: preparation and anticipation, encounter, adjustment, and stabilization.Less
Becoming a trader does not mean that one has to be familiarized with merely one body of fixed knowledge. Traders are exposed to various intensive experiences that may or may not involve powerful emotions, losses, and gains. To become a trader, one has to explore new ways of doing things, learn how to adapt to new situations, know when to modify decision rules, and learn how to use history and experience to make confident decisions in a short period of time. This chapter takes in the experiential and psychological factors that influence the individual development of the trader and further develop trading skills by explaining the implications of formal and informal socialization, and presenting a transitions model that involves the following processes: preparation and anticipation, encounter, adjustment, and stabilization.
Wallace Matson
- Published in print:
- 2011
- Published Online:
- January 2012
- ISBN:
- 9780199812691
- eISBN:
- 9780199919420
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199812691.003.0002
- Subject:
- Philosophy, History of Philosophy
Plants cope passively with their environments. Animals can act – move from places less to more favorable for feeding, fighting, fleeing, and/or reproducing accordingly as their nervous systems ...
More
Plants cope passively with their environments. Animals can act – move from places less to more favorable for feeding, fighting, fleeing, and/or reproducing accordingly as their nervous systems provide internal indications of their situations. The actions are reflex – 'hard-wired' responses to specific stimuli – and/or instinctive, more general behavior patterns acquired by evolutionary 'slow learning,' and/or choice. Acquisition of memory enables an animal to modify its own behavior patterns, by trial-and-error learning. With memory comes the notion of a sequence in time, therefore of consequences of happenings and doings, therefore of a future, therefore of goals. Goals are objects of desires. Hence animals with memory can choose between courses of action, the anticipated consequences of which differ in value, imagined desirability.Anticipations are one kind of belief. They are all practical to begin with, and are frequently jeopardized This means that propensities to form erroneous beliefs get selected out. So nearly all beliefs of the kind subject to the selection process are true, that is to say, they constitute a sufficiently accurate map of whatever is the object of coping.Less
Plants cope passively with their environments. Animals can act – move from places less to more favorable for feeding, fighting, fleeing, and/or reproducing accordingly as their nervous systems provide internal indications of their situations. The actions are reflex – 'hard-wired' responses to specific stimuli – and/or instinctive, more general behavior patterns acquired by evolutionary 'slow learning,' and/or choice. Acquisition of memory enables an animal to modify its own behavior patterns, by trial-and-error learning. With memory comes the notion of a sequence in time, therefore of consequences of happenings and doings, therefore of a future, therefore of goals. Goals are objects of desires. Hence animals with memory can choose between courses of action, the anticipated consequences of which differ in value, imagined desirability.Anticipations are one kind of belief. They are all practical to begin with, and are frequently jeopardized This means that propensities to form erroneous beliefs get selected out. So nearly all beliefs of the kind subject to the selection process are true, that is to say, they constitute a sufficiently accurate map of whatever is the object of coping.
Wheatley Thalia and E. Looser Christine
- Published in print:
- 2010
- Published Online:
- January 2011
- ISBN:
- 9780195381641
- eISBN:
- 9780199864911
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195381641.003.0014
- Subject:
- Psychology, Cognitive Psychology
Converging evidence from neuroscience reveals that our brains do predict the future and do so well, but on a short time scale. Bayesian anticipation of likely events appears to be a general principle ...
More
Converging evidence from neuroscience reveals that our brains do predict the future and do so well, but on a short time scale. Bayesian anticipation of likely events appears to be a general principle of brain function. That is, we use information about the probability of past events to predict future events, allowing for a more efficient use of neural resources. While research has begun to show that many systems in the brain code Bayesian predictions, very little work has examined the experiential consequences of this coding. This chapter proposes that prospective neural facilitation may be fundamental to the phenomenological experience of will.Less
Converging evidence from neuroscience reveals that our brains do predict the future and do so well, but on a short time scale. Bayesian anticipation of likely events appears to be a general principle of brain function. That is, we use information about the probability of past events to predict future events, allowing for a more efficient use of neural resources. While research has begun to show that many systems in the brain code Bayesian predictions, very little work has examined the experiential consequences of this coding. This chapter proposes that prospective neural facilitation may be fundamental to the phenomenological experience of will.
Aude Noiray, Marie-Agnès Cathiard, Lucie Ménard, and Christian Abry
- Published in print:
- 2010
- Published Online:
- March 2012
- ISBN:
- 9780199235797
- eISBN:
- 9780191696671
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199235797.003.0009
- Subject:
- Neuroscience, Sensory and Motor Systems
This chapter investigates the cross-language validity of the Movement Expansion Model (MEM) and its developmental relevance. The first part reports on a test of the classical rounding anticipatory ...
More
This chapter investigates the cross-language validity of the Movement Expansion Model (MEM) and its developmental relevance. The first part reports on a test of the classical rounding anticipatory coarticulation models with adults from two different language backgrounds (American English and Canadian French). Anticipatory movement patterns were described by means of collecting protrusion and constriction data. A bite-block condition was added to control the possible neighbouring consonantal influence (via the jaw, particularly for coronals) on the time course of rounding anticipation. All speakers displayed a lawful MEM anticipatory behaviour including English subjects who have been reported to display a different rounding behaviour from French or Swedish. The failure of the preceding studies was attributed to a too small protrusion magnitude. The second part of this study reports on a test of the MEM model to account for the evolution of vocalic rounding anticipation in seven French-speaking children (aged from three-and-a-half to eight years). Results showed that the rounding movement timing pattern for the production of the French vowel [y] can be mastered as early as three-and-a-half years of age, and at least by five-and-a-half years.Less
This chapter investigates the cross-language validity of the Movement Expansion Model (MEM) and its developmental relevance. The first part reports on a test of the classical rounding anticipatory coarticulation models with adults from two different language backgrounds (American English and Canadian French). Anticipatory movement patterns were described by means of collecting protrusion and constriction data. A bite-block condition was added to control the possible neighbouring consonantal influence (via the jaw, particularly for coronals) on the time course of rounding anticipation. All speakers displayed a lawful MEM anticipatory behaviour including English subjects who have been reported to display a different rounding behaviour from French or Swedish. The failure of the preceding studies was attributed to a too small protrusion magnitude. The second part of this study reports on a test of the MEM model to account for the evolution of vocalic rounding anticipation in seven French-speaking children (aged from three-and-a-half to eight years). Results showed that the rounding movement timing pattern for the production of the French vowel [y] can be mastered as early as three-and-a-half years of age, and at least by five-and-a-half years.
Ingmar Persson
- Published in print:
- 2005
- Published Online:
- February 2006
- ISBN:
- 9780199276905
- eISBN:
- 9780191603198
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/0199276900.003.0025
- Subject:
- Philosophy, General
Chapter 23 concluded that the bias towards oneself is not rationally justifiable. This chapter tries to provide a causal explanation of the elements of this bias. It explains how self-concern arises ...
More
Chapter 23 concluded that the bias towards oneself is not rationally justifiable. This chapter tries to provide a causal explanation of the elements of this bias. It explains how self-concern arises out of the anticipation of future experiences. And it explains self-approval, or liking for oneself, as being based on properties one is aware of oneself as having rather than on the recognition of identity.Less
Chapter 23 concluded that the bias towards oneself is not rationally justifiable. This chapter tries to provide a causal explanation of the elements of this bias. It explains how self-concern arises out of the anticipation of future experiences. And it explains self-approval, or liking for oneself, as being based on properties one is aware of oneself as having rather than on the recognition of identity.
Georges Dicker
- Published in print:
- 2004
- Published Online:
- January 2005
- ISBN:
- 9780195153064
- eISBN:
- 9780199835027
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/0195153065.003.0003
- Subject:
- Philosophy, History of Philosophy
This chapter introduces Kant’s theory of categories and corresponding principles. It explains and evaluates Kant’s attempt to derive his categories from forms of judgment. It also discusses in detail ...
More
This chapter introduces Kant’s theory of categories and corresponding principles. It explains and evaluates Kant’s attempt to derive his categories from forms of judgment. It also discusses in detail the principles that do not depend on the Transcendental Deduction–namely, the Axioms of Intuition, the Anticipations of Perception, the Postulates of Empirical Thought–and introduces those that do depend on the Transcendental Deduction–namely, the Analogies of Experience.Less
This chapter introduces Kant’s theory of categories and corresponding principles. It explains and evaluates Kant’s attempt to derive his categories from forms of judgment. It also discusses in detail the principles that do not depend on the Transcendental Deduction–namely, the Axioms of Intuition, the Anticipations of Perception, the Postulates of Empirical Thought–and introduces those that do depend on the Transcendental Deduction–namely, the Analogies of Experience.
David Barnard, Patricia Boston R.N., Anna Towers, and Yanna Lambrinidou
- Published in print:
- 2000
- Published Online:
- November 2011
- ISBN:
- 9780195123432
- eISBN:
- 9780199999835
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195123432.003.0020
- Subject:
- Palliative Care, Patient Care and End-of-Life Decision Making, Palliative Medicine and Older People
This chapter discusses Joey Court, a child with an unusual and invariably fatal medical disorder. Joey was expected to die from the first year of his life. Despite the severity of his condition, his ...
More
This chapter discusses Joey Court, a child with an unusual and invariably fatal medical disorder. Joey was expected to die from the first year of his life. Despite the severity of his condition, his parents treated Joey like a normal child. Joey lived for nine years without the aid of life-prolonging treatment. During this period, his parents made a difficult decision to withhold life-prolonging treatment and admitted Joey to the home care services of hospice. He lived for another five months while relying solely on palliative interventions. The chapter narrates how the family coped with the death of a child. It touches on the different themes of pediatric hospice care such as the decision to terminate aggressive treatments, the anticipation of death, the grief and bereavement of all the family members, and the question “why?”Less
This chapter discusses Joey Court, a child with an unusual and invariably fatal medical disorder. Joey was expected to die from the first year of his life. Despite the severity of his condition, his parents treated Joey like a normal child. Joey lived for nine years without the aid of life-prolonging treatment. During this period, his parents made a difficult decision to withhold life-prolonging treatment and admitted Joey to the home care services of hospice. He lived for another five months while relying solely on palliative interventions. The chapter narrates how the family coped with the death of a child. It touches on the different themes of pediatric hospice care such as the decision to terminate aggressive treatments, the anticipation of death, the grief and bereavement of all the family members, and the question “why?”
Jay F. Rosenberg
- Published in print:
- 2005
- Published Online:
- September 2011
- ISBN:
- 9780199275816
- eISBN:
- 9780191699849
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199275816.003.0008
- Subject:
- Philosophy, History of Philosophy, Metaphysics/Epistemology
This chapter talks about a concept that is essentially the sort of thing that can have instance, a one over against a potential many. A concept thus serves as a principle of unity for a manifold ...
More
This chapter talks about a concept that is essentially the sort of thing that can have instance, a one over against a potential many. A concept thus serves as a principle of unity for a manifold insofar as it collects the items that are subsumed under it. Correctively, however, concepts serve as rules for counting the items that are subsumed under them. The principle of the Axioms tells us something about all ‘intuitions’ and the principle of the Anticipations about all ‘appearance’, but an intuition or an appearance need not be an object. Pains, sounds, afterimages, and even feeling can qualify. The Axioms of intuition and anticipations of perception themselves are the synthetic a priori principles of mathematics whose objective validity is to be secured by those arguments. What we find in the Axioms, in other words, is in essence an argument from the subjective conditions of intuition to an objectively valid conclusion regarding intuited items. A conclusion that finds expression in, and thereby secures the epistemic legitimacy of, a synthetic a priori judgment about those items.Less
This chapter talks about a concept that is essentially the sort of thing that can have instance, a one over against a potential many. A concept thus serves as a principle of unity for a manifold insofar as it collects the items that are subsumed under it. Correctively, however, concepts serve as rules for counting the items that are subsumed under them. The principle of the Axioms tells us something about all ‘intuitions’ and the principle of the Anticipations about all ‘appearance’, but an intuition or an appearance need not be an object. Pains, sounds, afterimages, and even feeling can qualify. The Axioms of intuition and anticipations of perception themselves are the synthetic a priori principles of mathematics whose objective validity is to be secured by those arguments. What we find in the Axioms, in other words, is in essence an argument from the subjective conditions of intuition to an objectively valid conclusion regarding intuited items. A conclusion that finds expression in, and thereby secures the epistemic legitimacy of, a synthetic a priori judgment about those items.
Lena Palaniyappan and Rajeev Krishnadas
- Published in print:
- 2010
- Published Online:
- November 2020
- ISBN:
- 9780199553617
- eISBN:
- 9780191917813
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/oso/9780199553617.003.0010
- Subject:
- Clinical Medicine and Allied Health, Professional Development in Medicine
Holly Alliger Ruff and Mary Klevjord Rothbart
- Published in print:
- 2001
- Published Online:
- April 2010
- ISBN:
- 9780195136326
- eISBN:
- 9780199894031
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195136326.003.0004
- Subject:
- Psychology, Developmental Psychology
This chapter uses the extensive research on eye movements in order to elucidate the development of visual information gathering. The eye movements of newborns show that they tend to fixate on ...
More
This chapter uses the extensive research on eye movements in order to elucidate the development of visual information gathering. The eye movements of newborns show that they tend to fixate on contours. When looking at specific objects and pictures, infants of 2 to 3 months begin to scan more broadly and to include the internal details. Scanning continues to become more precise, but even pre-schoolers scan in a less controlled manner than adults. During the first year, shifting fixations from one object to another in the environment becomes more rapid and appears to reflect a comparison of alternatives. Later scanning patterns reflect the influence of past experiences, expectations, and task demands. Although visual fixations are an indirect measure of the underlying attentional processes, they are useful in documenting changes from sub-cortical to cortical control of attention.Less
This chapter uses the extensive research on eye movements in order to elucidate the development of visual information gathering. The eye movements of newborns show that they tend to fixate on contours. When looking at specific objects and pictures, infants of 2 to 3 months begin to scan more broadly and to include the internal details. Scanning continues to become more precise, but even pre-schoolers scan in a less controlled manner than adults. During the first year, shifting fixations from one object to another in the environment becomes more rapid and appears to reflect a comparison of alternatives. Later scanning patterns reflect the influence of past experiences, expectations, and task demands. Although visual fixations are an indirect measure of the underlying attentional processes, they are useful in documenting changes from sub-cortical to cortical control of attention.
Brian Knutson and Gregory R. Samanez-Larkin
- Published in print:
- 2012
- Published Online:
- January 2013
- ISBN:
- 9780199873722
- eISBN:
- 9780199980000
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199873722.003.0007
- Subject:
- Law, Company and Commercial Law
This chapter summarizes recent findings in neuroeconomics suggesting that emotion (specifically, “anticipatory affect”) can influence financial decisions. It then discusses how individual differences ...
More
This chapter summarizes recent findings in neuroeconomics suggesting that emotion (specifically, “anticipatory affect”) can influence financial decisions. It then discusses how individual differences in anticipatory affect may promote proneness to consumer debt. Thanks to improvements in spatial and temporal resolution, functional magnetic resonance imaging experiments have begun to suggest that activation of a brain region associated with anticipating gains (i.e., the nucleus accumbens or NAcc) precedes an increased tendency to seek financial gains, whereas activation of another region associated with anticipating losses (i.e., the anterior insula) precedes an increased tendency to avoid financial losses. By extension, individual differences in increased gain anticipation, decreased loss anticipation, or some combination of the two might promote proneness to debt. Ultimately, neuroeconomic advances may help individuals to optimize their investment strategies, as well as empower institutions to minimize consumer debt.Less
This chapter summarizes recent findings in neuroeconomics suggesting that emotion (specifically, “anticipatory affect”) can influence financial decisions. It then discusses how individual differences in anticipatory affect may promote proneness to consumer debt. Thanks to improvements in spatial and temporal resolution, functional magnetic resonance imaging experiments have begun to suggest that activation of a brain region associated with anticipating gains (i.e., the nucleus accumbens or NAcc) precedes an increased tendency to seek financial gains, whereas activation of another region associated with anticipating losses (i.e., the anterior insula) precedes an increased tendency to avoid financial losses. By extension, individual differences in increased gain anticipation, decreased loss anticipation, or some combination of the two might promote proneness to debt. Ultimately, neuroeconomic advances may help individuals to optimize their investment strategies, as well as empower institutions to minimize consumer debt.
Colin S. Gray
- Published in print:
- 2014
- Published Online:
- August 2014
- ISBN:
- 9780198701842
- eISBN:
- 9780191771583
- Item type:
- book
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198701842.001.0001
- Subject:
- Political Science, International Relations and Politics
This book explores and examines the problems that every political community must attempt to meet in providing for national security in the future through purposeful defence preparation. The book ...
More
This book explores and examines the problems that every political community must attempt to meet in providing for national security in the future through purposeful defence preparation. The book accepts as a defining contextual quality for its subject the fact that the future is neither known nor reliably knowable. This unavoidable ignorance constitutes the core of the challenge that has to be met by all states. The author explains that it is parametric for defence planning that no specific detail about the future obtainable understanding of permanent certainty of this fact is often resisted by politicians, officials, and supposed scholars, who talk about a ‘foreseeable future’. The practicable challenge is not to seek skill in prophecy in order to achieve some miracle of future knowledge; rather is it to identify and know how to use what is known and knowable, for the purpose of prudent preparation for the future. The book explains that while, on the one hand, strategic history is notably non-linear, on the other hand there are potent threads of continuity and considers in detail: the fundamental challenge of the subject—the challenge of uncertainty; the critical importance of strategy and its theory; the value of historical experience, as well as its limitations, for understanding of the future; the scope for and significance of political discretion in planning choice; useful sources of guidance, and their problems; and, finally, how the challenges of uncertainty can best be met.Less
This book explores and examines the problems that every political community must attempt to meet in providing for national security in the future through purposeful defence preparation. The book accepts as a defining contextual quality for its subject the fact that the future is neither known nor reliably knowable. This unavoidable ignorance constitutes the core of the challenge that has to be met by all states. The author explains that it is parametric for defence planning that no specific detail about the future obtainable understanding of permanent certainty of this fact is often resisted by politicians, officials, and supposed scholars, who talk about a ‘foreseeable future’. The practicable challenge is not to seek skill in prophecy in order to achieve some miracle of future knowledge; rather is it to identify and know how to use what is known and knowable, for the purpose of prudent preparation for the future. The book explains that while, on the one hand, strategic history is notably non-linear, on the other hand there are potent threads of continuity and considers in detail: the fundamental challenge of the subject—the challenge of uncertainty; the critical importance of strategy and its theory; the value of historical experience, as well as its limitations, for understanding of the future; the scope for and significance of political discretion in planning choice; useful sources of guidance, and their problems; and, finally, how the challenges of uncertainty can best be met.
Richard A. Settersten
- Published in print:
- 2020
- Published Online:
- September 2020
- ISBN:
- 9781447340850
- eISBN:
- 9781447340904
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Policy Press
- DOI:
- 10.1332/policypress/9781447340850.003.0002
- Subject:
- Sociology, Gerontology and Ageing
Precarity is at the heart of human experience. In every period of life, all people would seem to face some minimal types and levels of precarity simply in being alive and in having to navigate an ...
More
Precarity is at the heart of human experience. In every period of life, all people would seem to face some minimal types and levels of precarity simply in being alive and in having to navigate an ever-changing world. At the same time, precarity is particularistic: some kinds of precarity may be unique in different periods of life, and some people and groups have more of it, or more serious types, than others. To understand the sources and consequences of precarity in later life, it is important to understand the life course: how individuals’ past experiences affect later ones, and how social forces open and close opportunities and structure pathways through life. A life course perspective helps reveal where, when, how, and for whom precarity occurs, and what legacies it carries in the lives of individuals, families, and societies. The chapter covers 12 key lessons about how life course dynamics matter in creating, minimizing, or eliminating the precarity of ageing.Less
Precarity is at the heart of human experience. In every period of life, all people would seem to face some minimal types and levels of precarity simply in being alive and in having to navigate an ever-changing world. At the same time, precarity is particularistic: some kinds of precarity may be unique in different periods of life, and some people and groups have more of it, or more serious types, than others. To understand the sources and consequences of precarity in later life, it is important to understand the life course: how individuals’ past experiences affect later ones, and how social forces open and close opportunities and structure pathways through life. A life course perspective helps reveal where, when, how, and for whom precarity occurs, and what legacies it carries in the lives of individuals, families, and societies. The chapter covers 12 key lessons about how life course dynamics matter in creating, minimizing, or eliminating the precarity of ageing.
V. De Keyser
- Published in print:
- 1990
- Published Online:
- March 2012
- ISBN:
- 9780198521914
- eISBN:
- 9780191688454
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198521914.003.0012
- Subject:
- Psychology, Human-Technology Interaction
The basic hypothesis of this chapter is that under the influence of technological development and market pressure, situations take on temporal characteristics that are more and more difficult for the ...
More
The basic hypothesis of this chapter is that under the influence of technological development and market pressure, situations take on temporal characteristics that are more and more difficult for the operator to control. The temporal strategies traditionally installed by the operator disappear, are transferred or transformed. Far from counterbalancing these phenomena, the displays, as they are designed in the workplace, obliterate the temporal dimension. The errors that are seen to appear are the product of a mismatch between the characteristics of the situation and the operator's resources. Four mechanisms of time estimation are discussed. Field study results on temporal strategies, such as anticipation, assessment of a process evolution and planning adjustment are developed.Less
The basic hypothesis of this chapter is that under the influence of technological development and market pressure, situations take on temporal characteristics that are more and more difficult for the operator to control. The temporal strategies traditionally installed by the operator disappear, are transferred or transformed. Far from counterbalancing these phenomena, the displays, as they are designed in the workplace, obliterate the temporal dimension. The errors that are seen to appear are the product of a mismatch between the characteristics of the situation and the operator's resources. Four mechanisms of time estimation are discussed. Field study results on temporal strategies, such as anticipation, assessment of a process evolution and planning adjustment are developed.
