Lisa Conant
- Published in print:
- 2003
- Published Online:
- April 2004
- ISBN:
- 9780199257409
- eISBN:
- 9780191600951
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/019925740X.003.0011
- Subject:
- Political Science, European Union
Conant's analysis of the air transport sector suggests how and why the European Court of Justice (ECJ) litigation strategy is not always successful for the individual claimant. In particular, the ...
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Conant's analysis of the air transport sector suggests how and why the European Court of Justice (ECJ) litigation strategy is not always successful for the individual claimant. In particular, the analysis demonstrates that despite the critical role of ECJ air transport litigation brought by individuals throughout the 1970s and 1980s, it was only the legal challenges of EU organizations and major airline carriers, and political mobilization of national executives that ultimately led to liberalization. The first section of the chapter briefly describes the traditionally protected air transport regime in Europe and then identifies legal challenges to restrictions that surfaced during the 1970s and 1980s, traces the evolution of interests in the air transport sector in the 1980s and 1990s, and demonstrates that a shift in political interests was a key component of legal and political pressure for liberalization and institutionalization of the air transport regime at the EU level. The second section assesses the extent to which the air transport market has liberalized and realized the potential benefits of competition, and the third concludes with an evaluation of the relationship between individual action, institutions, and organizations in this sector and other areas of EU law.Less
Conant's analysis of the air transport sector suggests how and why the European Court of Justice (ECJ) litigation strategy is not always successful for the individual claimant. In particular, the analysis demonstrates that despite the critical role of ECJ air transport litigation brought by individuals throughout the 1970s and 1980s, it was only the legal challenges of EU organizations and major airline carriers, and political mobilization of national executives that ultimately led to liberalization. The first section of the chapter briefly describes the traditionally protected air transport regime in Europe and then identifies legal challenges to restrictions that surfaced during the 1970s and 1980s, traces the evolution of interests in the air transport sector in the 1980s and 1990s, and demonstrates that a shift in political interests was a key component of legal and political pressure for liberalization and institutionalization of the air transport regime at the EU level. The second section assesses the extent to which the air transport market has liberalized and realized the potential benefits of competition, and the third concludes with an evaluation of the relationship between individual action, institutions, and organizations in this sector and other areas of EU law.
Jody Freeman and Charles D. Kolstad
- Published in print:
- 2006
- Published Online:
- January 2007
- ISBN:
- 9780195189650
- eISBN:
- 9780199783694
- Item type:
- book
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195189650.001.0001
- Subject:
- Economics and Finance, Development, Growth, and Environmental
Over the last decade, market-based incentives have become the regulatory tool of choice when trying to solve difficult environmental problems. Evidence of their dominance can be seen in recent ...
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Over the last decade, market-based incentives have become the regulatory tool of choice when trying to solve difficult environmental problems. Evidence of their dominance can be seen in recent proposals for addressing global warming (through an emissions trading scheme in the Kyoto Protocol) and for amending the Clean Air Act (to add a new emissions trading systems for smog precursors and mercury — the Bush administration's “Clear Skies” program). They are widely viewed as more efficient than traditional command and control regulation. This collection of essays takes a critical look at this question, and evaluates whether the promises of market-based regulation have been fulfilled. Contributors put forth the ideas that few regulatory instruments are actually purely market-based, or purely prescriptive, and that both approaches can be systematically undermined by insufficiently careful design and by failures of monitoring and enforcement. All in all, the essays recommend future research that no longer pits one kind of approach against the other, but instead examines their interaction and compatibility. This book should appeal to academics in environmental economics and law, along with policymakers in government agencies and advocates in non-governmental organizations.Less
Over the last decade, market-based incentives have become the regulatory tool of choice when trying to solve difficult environmental problems. Evidence of their dominance can be seen in recent proposals for addressing global warming (through an emissions trading scheme in the Kyoto Protocol) and for amending the Clean Air Act (to add a new emissions trading systems for smog precursors and mercury — the Bush administration's “Clear Skies” program). They are widely viewed as more efficient than traditional command and control regulation. This collection of essays takes a critical look at this question, and evaluates whether the promises of market-based regulation have been fulfilled. Contributors put forth the ideas that few regulatory instruments are actually purely market-based, or purely prescriptive, and that both approaches can be systematically undermined by insufficiently careful design and by failures of monitoring and enforcement. All in all, the essays recommend future research that no longer pits one kind of approach against the other, but instead examines their interaction and compatibility. This book should appeal to academics in environmental economics and law, along with policymakers in government agencies and advocates in non-governmental organizations.
Ramón López and Michael A. Toman (eds)
- Published in print:
- 2006
- Published Online:
- September 2006
- ISBN:
- 9780199298006
- eISBN:
- 9780191603877
- Item type:
- book
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/0199298009.001.0001
- Subject:
- Economics and Finance, Development, Growth, and Environmental
This paper examines the record of urban population growth, health, and health care spending in developing countries; describes the linkage between urban air pollution and health; and weighs policy ...
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This paper examines the record of urban population growth, health, and health care spending in developing countries; describes the linkage between urban air pollution and health; and weighs policy responses to reduce stationary and mobile source air pollution. The stylized facts of developing countries necessitate adaptation and working within the limitations of each country, and argue for a preference towards applying economic incentive approaches to stationary source problems. A variety of incentive and control and command policies are available to reduce the emissions from mobile sources. An examination of case studies demonstrates that NGOs are willing to bring about the creation of the infrastructure to set air quality goals, and implement the measures necessary to achieving these goals. Ultimately, however, local and national governments must be responsible for such goal setting and implementation.Less
This paper examines the record of urban population growth, health, and health care spending in developing countries; describes the linkage between urban air pollution and health; and weighs policy responses to reduce stationary and mobile source air pollution. The stylized facts of developing countries necessitate adaptation and working within the limitations of each country, and argue for a preference towards applying economic incentive approaches to stationary source problems. A variety of incentive and control and command policies are available to reduce the emissions from mobile sources. An examination of case studies demonstrates that NGOs are willing to bring about the creation of the infrastructure to set air quality goals, and implement the measures necessary to achieving these goals. Ultimately, however, local and national governments must be responsible for such goal setting and implementation.
Ellerman A. Denny
- Published in print:
- 2006
- Published Online:
- January 2007
- ISBN:
- 9780195189650
- eISBN:
- 9780199783694
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195189650.003.0003
- Subject:
- Economics and Finance, Development, Growth, and Environmental
This essay explains why cap-and-trade programs (in which government establishes an overall cap on pollution but allows firms to trade allocations beneath the cap) can be both more economically ...
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This essay explains why cap-and-trade programs (in which government establishes an overall cap on pollution but allows firms to trade allocations beneath the cap) can be both more economically efficient and more environmentally effective than prescriptive regulation. It underscores the importance of measuring effectiveness in ex post evaluations, which are defined as achieving the proximate goal (i.e., of emissions reduction), rather than the larger goal of solving the underlying problem (i.e., unhealthy air). The argument in favor of market instruments is supported with data from three emissions trading programs: the SO2 trading regime in Title IV of the Clean Air Act, the NOx budget program created by the EPA to address interstate ozone migration, and the RECLAIM program created by the South Coast Air Quality Management District in Southern California. It is proposed that market instruments represent a new pragmatism in environmental regulation and that they are part of the maturation of the regulatory process.Less
This essay explains why cap-and-trade programs (in which government establishes an overall cap on pollution but allows firms to trade allocations beneath the cap) can be both more economically efficient and more environmentally effective than prescriptive regulation. It underscores the importance of measuring effectiveness in ex post evaluations, which are defined as achieving the proximate goal (i.e., of emissions reduction), rather than the larger goal of solving the underlying problem (i.e., unhealthy air). The argument in favor of market instruments is supported with data from three emissions trading programs: the SO2 trading regime in Title IV of the Clean Air Act, the NOx budget program created by the EPA to address interstate ozone migration, and the RECLAIM program created by the South Coast Air Quality Management District in Southern California. It is proposed that market instruments represent a new pragmatism in environmental regulation and that they are part of the maturation of the regulatory process.
Tom Tietenberg
- Published in print:
- 2006
- Published Online:
- January 2007
- ISBN:
- 9780195189650
- eISBN:
- 9780199783694
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195189650.003.0004
- Subject:
- Economics and Finance, Development, Growth, and Environmental
This essay reviews data on tradable permit systems in various contexts, including air pollution regulation, water supply, fisheries management, grazing rights allocation, water quality, and wetlands ...
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This essay reviews data on tradable permit systems in various contexts, including air pollution regulation, water supply, fisheries management, grazing rights allocation, water quality, and wetlands preservation. These programs are evaluated against three criteria: implementation feasibility, environmental effectiveness, and economic effectiveness. The analysis makes clear that the particular characteristics of these different regimes affect the evaluation of their performance. Beyond reporting substantive results for each program, the essay offers insight into the methodological difficulties of ex post evaluations generally. For example, not all studies define economic efficiency or environmental effectiveness in the same way, and studies vary in their choice of comparative benchmark or counterfactual, which can significantly affect results. Ex post evaluations differ as well in terms of both scope (i.e., which outcomes are considered exogenous and which endogenous) and timing (i.e., the point in the life of the program when the evaluation is done). All of these choices can influence the resulting interpretations.Less
This essay reviews data on tradable permit systems in various contexts, including air pollution regulation, water supply, fisheries management, grazing rights allocation, water quality, and wetlands preservation. These programs are evaluated against three criteria: implementation feasibility, environmental effectiveness, and economic effectiveness. The analysis makes clear that the particular characteristics of these different regimes affect the evaluation of their performance. Beyond reporting substantive results for each program, the essay offers insight into the methodological difficulties of ex post evaluations generally. For example, not all studies define economic efficiency or environmental effectiveness in the same way, and studies vary in their choice of comparative benchmark or counterfactual, which can significantly affect results. Ex post evaluations differ as well in terms of both scope (i.e., which outcomes are considered exogenous and which endogenous) and timing (i.e., the point in the life of the program when the evaluation is done). All of these choices can influence the resulting interpretations.
Jason Scott Johnston
- Published in print:
- 2006
- Published Online:
- January 2007
- ISBN:
- 9780195189650
- eISBN:
- 9780199783694
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195189650.003.0013
- Subject:
- Economics and Finance, Development, Growth, and Environmental
This essay pursues an underexplored aspect of the literature on tradable permit regimes by asking which among polluting firms are the likely winners and losers in the shift from a prescriptive ...
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This essay pursues an underexplored aspect of the literature on tradable permit regimes by asking which among polluting firms are the likely winners and losers in the shift from a prescriptive approach to a market trading scheme, and under which conditions will firms support such a shift? One of the reasons why literature overlooks such questions is that analysts tend to use an overly simplified and unrealistic notion of command- and -control regulation. Although in some instances government regulations dictate to firms the particular technologies they must adopt, most prescriptive regulation consists of performance standards that firms may meet any way they choose. So-called command-and-control regulation always relies to some extent on adjustments in light of economic realities: both in the initial phase of level setting when the regulatory agency takes account of industrial processes and capacities in choosing the standard and later, when agencies negotiate particular permits. There is, moreover, considerable flexibility in the enforcement process, when agencies must determine whether firms are out of compliance and what must be done in response.Less
This essay pursues an underexplored aspect of the literature on tradable permit regimes by asking which among polluting firms are the likely winners and losers in the shift from a prescriptive approach to a market trading scheme, and under which conditions will firms support such a shift? One of the reasons why literature overlooks such questions is that analysts tend to use an overly simplified and unrealistic notion of command- and -control regulation. Although in some instances government regulations dictate to firms the particular technologies they must adopt, most prescriptive regulation consists of performance standards that firms may meet any way they choose. So-called command-and-control regulation always relies to some extent on adjustments in light of economic realities: both in the initial phase of level setting when the regulatory agency takes account of industrial processes and capacities in choosing the standard and later, when agencies negotiate particular permits. There is, moreover, considerable flexibility in the enforcement process, when agencies must determine whether firms are out of compliance and what must be done in response.
Daniel A. Farber
- Published in print:
- 2006
- Published Online:
- January 2007
- ISBN:
- 9780195189650
- eISBN:
- 9780199783694
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195189650.003.0014
- Subject:
- Economics and Finance, Development, Growth, and Environmental
This essay pursues an underexplored aspect of the literature on tradable permit regimes by asking which among polluting firms are the likely winners and losers in the shift from a prescriptive ...
More
This essay pursues an underexplored aspect of the literature on tradable permit regimes by asking which among polluting firms are the likely winners and losers in the shift from a prescriptive approach to a market trading scheme, and under which conditions will firms support such a shift? One of the reasons why literature overlooks such questions is that analysts tend to use an overly simplified and unrealistic notion of command-and-control regulation. Although in some instances government regulations dictate to firms the particular technologies they must adopt, most prescriptive regulation consists of performance standards that firms may meet any way they choose. So-called command-and-control regulation always relies to some extent on adjustments in light of economic realities: both in the initial phase of level setting when the regulatory agency takes account of industrial processes and capacities in choosing the standard and later, when agencies negotiate particular permits. There is, moreover, considerable flexibility in the enforcement process, when agencies must determine whether firms are out of compliance and what must be done in response.Less
This essay pursues an underexplored aspect of the literature on tradable permit regimes by asking which among polluting firms are the likely winners and losers in the shift from a prescriptive approach to a market trading scheme, and under which conditions will firms support such a shift? One of the reasons why literature overlooks such questions is that analysts tend to use an overly simplified and unrealistic notion of command-and-control regulation. Although in some instances government regulations dictate to firms the particular technologies they must adopt, most prescriptive regulation consists of performance standards that firms may meet any way they choose. So-called command-and-control regulation always relies to some extent on adjustments in light of economic realities: both in the initial phase of level setting when the regulatory agency takes account of industrial processes and capacities in choosing the standard and later, when agencies negotiate particular permits. There is, moreover, considerable flexibility in the enforcement process, when agencies must determine whether firms are out of compliance and what must be done in response.
David Vogel
- Published in print:
- 2012
- Published Online:
- October 2017
- ISBN:
- 9780691124162
- eISBN:
- 9781400842568
- Item type:
- book
- Publisher:
- Princeton University Press
- DOI:
- 10.23943/princeton/9780691124162.001.0001
- Subject:
- Political Science, Public Policy
This book examines the politics of consumer and environmental risk regulation in the United States and Europe over the last five decades, explaining why America and Europe have often regulated a wide ...
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This book examines the politics of consumer and environmental risk regulation in the United States and Europe over the last five decades, explaining why America and Europe have often regulated a wide range of similar risks differently. It finds that between 1960 and 1990, American health, safety, and environmental regulations were more stringent, risk averse, comprehensive, and innovative than those adopted in Europe. But since around 1990 global regulatory leadership has shifted to Europe. What explains this striking reversal? This book takes an in-depth, comparative look at European and American policies toward a range of consumer and environmental risks, including vehicle air pollution, ozone depletion, climate change, beef and milk hormones, genetically modified agriculture, antibiotics in animal feed, pesticides, cosmetic safety, and hazardous substances in electronic products. The book traces how concerns over such risks—and pressure on political leaders to do something about them—have risen among the European public but declined among Americans. The book explores how policymakers in Europe have grown supportive of more stringent regulations while those in the United States have become sharply polarized along partisan lines. And as European policymakers have grown more willing to regulate risks on precautionary grounds, increasingly skeptical American policymakers have called for higher levels of scientific certainty before imposing additional regulatory controls on business.Less
This book examines the politics of consumer and environmental risk regulation in the United States and Europe over the last five decades, explaining why America and Europe have often regulated a wide range of similar risks differently. It finds that between 1960 and 1990, American health, safety, and environmental regulations were more stringent, risk averse, comprehensive, and innovative than those adopted in Europe. But since around 1990 global regulatory leadership has shifted to Europe. What explains this striking reversal? This book takes an in-depth, comparative look at European and American policies toward a range of consumer and environmental risks, including vehicle air pollution, ozone depletion, climate change, beef and milk hormones, genetically modified agriculture, antibiotics in animal feed, pesticides, cosmetic safety, and hazardous substances in electronic products. The book traces how concerns over such risks—and pressure on political leaders to do something about them—have risen among the European public but declined among Americans. The book explores how policymakers in Europe have grown supportive of more stringent regulations while those in the United States have become sharply polarized along partisan lines. And as European policymakers have grown more willing to regulate risks on precautionary grounds, increasingly skeptical American policymakers have called for higher levels of scientific certainty before imposing additional regulatory controls on business.
Stephen Gaukroger
- Published in print:
- 2006
- Published Online:
- January 2007
- ISBN:
- 9780199296446
- eISBN:
- 9780191711985
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199296446.003.0011
- Subject:
- Philosophy, History of Philosophy
This chapter deals with experimental philosophy, as represented in Gilbert on magnetism, Hobbes on the air pump, and Newton on the production of the spectrum. It is shown that experimental philosophy ...
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This chapter deals with experimental philosophy, as represented in Gilbert on magnetism, Hobbes on the air pump, and Newton on the production of the spectrum. It is shown that experimental philosophy differs from mechanism in quite radical ways. In particular, it has explanatory success but in apparently very localized domains, and it construes causation not in terms of underlying causes but in terms of causes acting at the same level. Its difference from mechanism is manifest in the contrast between Descartes' and Newton's accounts of the production of the spectrum: Descartes provides a fully geometrical account of the separation of coloured rays, but then shifts into a different register, a qualitative and speculative one in attempting to provide a micro-corpuscularian account of the physical basis of colour production; Newton manages to account for the spectrum without leaving the phenomenal geometricized level, eschewing any recourse to ‘underlying’ causes.Less
This chapter deals with experimental philosophy, as represented in Gilbert on magnetism, Hobbes on the air pump, and Newton on the production of the spectrum. It is shown that experimental philosophy differs from mechanism in quite radical ways. In particular, it has explanatory success but in apparently very localized domains, and it construes causation not in terms of underlying causes but in terms of causes acting at the same level. Its difference from mechanism is manifest in the contrast between Descartes' and Newton's accounts of the production of the spectrum: Descartes provides a fully geometrical account of the separation of coloured rays, but then shifts into a different register, a qualitative and speculative one in attempting to provide a micro-corpuscularian account of the physical basis of colour production; Newton manages to account for the spectrum without leaving the phenomenal geometricized level, eschewing any recourse to ‘underlying’ causes.
Jie W Weiss and David J Weiss
- Published in print:
- 2008
- Published Online:
- January 2009
- ISBN:
- 9780195322989
- eISBN:
- 9780199869206
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195322989.003.0007
- Subject:
- Psychology, Cognitive Psychology
JUDGE is a decision-making technique designed to aid a commander responsible for dispatching Close Air Support missions in situations wherein resource limitations do not allow all demands to be ...
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JUDGE is a decision-making technique designed to aid a commander responsible for dispatching Close Air Support missions in situations wherein resource limitations do not allow all demands to be fulfilled. As each request for close air support is received, the JUDGE system makes a dispatching decision that maximizes the difference between a return gained for sending aircraft against the target and a cost imputed to expending sorties. This chapter reports an experiment to evaluate JUDGE. For comparison, JUDGE was pitted against a second technique called DASC (Direct Air Support Center)—a hypothetical version of the system the Air Force currently uses. The results showed the superiority of JUDGE over DASC when measured by an expected utility criterion. JUDGE performed at the 90% level when compared with the perfect possible performance. DASC reached a level of only 40%.Less
JUDGE is a decision-making technique designed to aid a commander responsible for dispatching Close Air Support missions in situations wherein resource limitations do not allow all demands to be fulfilled. As each request for close air support is received, the JUDGE system makes a dispatching decision that maximizes the difference between a return gained for sending aircraft against the target and a cost imputed to expending sorties. This chapter reports an experiment to evaluate JUDGE. For comparison, JUDGE was pitted against a second technique called DASC (Direct Air Support Center)—a hypothetical version of the system the Air Force currently uses. The results showed the superiority of JUDGE over DASC when measured by an expected utility criterion. JUDGE performed at the 90% level when compared with the perfect possible performance. DASC reached a level of only 40%.
Robert James Matthys
- Published in print:
- 2004
- Published Online:
- January 2010
- ISBN:
- 9780198529712
- eISBN:
- 9780191712791
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198529712.003.0027
- Subject:
- Physics, History of Physics
This chapter describes how to calculate and remove the air pressure error from a clock's time error versus time chart. Depending on geographic location and the density of the pendulum materials, air ...
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This chapter describes how to calculate and remove the air pressure error from a clock's time error versus time chart. Depending on geographic location and the density of the pendulum materials, air pressure variations can cause roughly 2-18 seconds of error in a clock in a year's time interval. This is because the pendulum ‘floats’ in a sea of air, and variations in the air pressure make the pendulum slow down or speed up. In this chapter, the pressure error itself is described first, followed by an actual clock data run to show how the pressure error is calculated and then removed from a clock's time error versus time curve. Correcting for the pressure error corrects the clock's time to a constant average pressure at the clock site. The error is the product of the pressure difference times time. More specifically, it is the integral of the pressure difference with respect to time.Less
This chapter describes how to calculate and remove the air pressure error from a clock's time error versus time chart. Depending on geographic location and the density of the pendulum materials, air pressure variations can cause roughly 2-18 seconds of error in a clock in a year's time interval. This is because the pendulum ‘floats’ in a sea of air, and variations in the air pressure make the pendulum slow down or speed up. In this chapter, the pressure error itself is described first, followed by an actual clock data run to show how the pressure error is calculated and then removed from a clock's time error versus time curve. Correcting for the pressure error corrects the clock's time to a constant average pressure at the clock site. The error is the product of the pressure difference times time. More specifically, it is the integral of the pressure difference with respect to time.
Robert James Matthys
- Published in print:
- 2004
- Published Online:
- January 2010
- ISBN:
- 9780198529712
- eISBN:
- 9780191712791
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198529712.003.0028
- Subject:
- Physics, History of Physics
A previous experiment showed that the walls of a pendulum clock case can slow down the pendulum via air drag by about 1 second per day. The pendulum has a 2-second period. This chapter describes an ...
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A previous experiment showed that the walls of a pendulum clock case can slow down the pendulum via air drag by about 1 second per day. The pendulum has a 2-second period. This chapter describes an experiment designed to find out if the walls' drag on the pendulum could be reduced or made more constant by shaping the walls' inside surface for easier air flow. The concept basically involved rounding the square corners inside the clock case. The results show that a spherical bob had the smoothest airflow, while a large cylindrical bob disturbed the most air. There was very little, if any, air movement near the clock case walls. Any further attempt to affect the airflow should be aimed at the bob's surface-to-air interface, and not at the case walls.Less
A previous experiment showed that the walls of a pendulum clock case can slow down the pendulum via air drag by about 1 second per day. The pendulum has a 2-second period. This chapter describes an experiment designed to find out if the walls' drag on the pendulum could be reduced or made more constant by shaping the walls' inside surface for easier air flow. The concept basically involved rounding the square corners inside the clock case. The results show that a spherical bob had the smoothest airflow, while a large cylindrical bob disturbed the most air. There was very little, if any, air movement near the clock case walls. Any further attempt to affect the airflow should be aimed at the bob's surface-to-air interface, and not at the case walls.
Robert J. Matthys
- Published in print:
- 2004
- Published Online:
- January 2010
- ISBN:
- 9780198529712
- eISBN:
- 9780191712791
- Item type:
- book
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198529712.001.0001
- Subject:
- Physics, History of Physics
The Shortt clock, made in the 1920s, is the most famous accurate clock pendulum ever known, having an accuracy of one second per year when kept at nearly constant temperature. Almost all of a ...
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The Shortt clock, made in the 1920s, is the most famous accurate clock pendulum ever known, having an accuracy of one second per year when kept at nearly constant temperature. Almost all of a pendulum clock's accuracy resides in its pendulum. If the pendulum is accurate, the clock will be accurate. This book describes many scientific aspects of pendulum design and operation in simple terms with experimental data, and little mathematics. It has been written, looking at all the different parts and aspects of the pendulum in great detail, chapter by chapter, reflecting the degree of attention necessary for making a pendulum run accurately. The topics covered include the dimensional stability of different pendulum materials, good and poor suspension spring designs, the design of mechanical joints and clamps, effect of quartz on accuracy, temperature compensation, air drag of different bob shapes and making a sinusoidal electromagnetic drive. One whole chapter is devoted to simple ways of improving the accuracy of ordinary low-cost pendulum clocks, which have a different construction compared to the more expensive designs of substantially well-made ones. This book will prove invaluable to anyone who wants to know how to make a more accurate pendulum or pendulum clock.Less
The Shortt clock, made in the 1920s, is the most famous accurate clock pendulum ever known, having an accuracy of one second per year when kept at nearly constant temperature. Almost all of a pendulum clock's accuracy resides in its pendulum. If the pendulum is accurate, the clock will be accurate. This book describes many scientific aspects of pendulum design and operation in simple terms with experimental data, and little mathematics. It has been written, looking at all the different parts and aspects of the pendulum in great detail, chapter by chapter, reflecting the degree of attention necessary for making a pendulum run accurately. The topics covered include the dimensional stability of different pendulum materials, good and poor suspension spring designs, the design of mechanical joints and clamps, effect of quartz on accuracy, temperature compensation, air drag of different bob shapes and making a sinusoidal electromagnetic drive. One whole chapter is devoted to simple ways of improving the accuracy of ordinary low-cost pendulum clocks, which have a different construction compared to the more expensive designs of substantially well-made ones. This book will prove invaluable to anyone who wants to know how to make a more accurate pendulum or pendulum clock.
Christopher Hood, Henry Rothstein, and Robert Baldwin
- Published in print:
- 2001
- Published Online:
- November 2003
- ISBN:
- 9780199243631
- eISBN:
- 9780191599507
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/0199243638.003.0003
- Subject:
- Political Science, Comparative Politics
Uses the analytic framework developed in Ch. 2 to compare nine different risk regulation regimes, bringing out their similarities and differences. Those risks include attacks by dangerous dogs ...
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Uses the analytic framework developed in Ch. 2 to compare nine different risk regulation regimes, bringing out their similarities and differences. Those risks include attacks by dangerous dogs outside the home, exposure to radon at home and work, benzene in the air and in the workplace, paedophile offenders released from custody, local road safety, and exposure to pesticide residues in food and water. Analysis of those regimes provides empirical evidence that there are substantial differences between the regulation of different risks and even the same risks within different contexts. Those variations are not easily explained by historical ‘big picture’ theories, such as the risk society thesis. Instead, investigation of the revealed variations between regimes suggests a need for more systematic and nuanced explanations.Less
Uses the analytic framework developed in Ch. 2 to compare nine different risk regulation regimes, bringing out their similarities and differences. Those risks include attacks by dangerous dogs outside the home, exposure to radon at home and work, benzene in the air and in the workplace, paedophile offenders released from custody, local road safety, and exposure to pesticide residues in food and water. Analysis of those regimes provides empirical evidence that there are substantial differences between the regulation of different risks and even the same risks within different contexts. Those variations are not easily explained by historical ‘big picture’ theories, such as the risk society thesis. Instead, investigation of the revealed variations between regimes suggests a need for more systematic and nuanced explanations.
Robert James Matthys
- Published in print:
- 2004
- Published Online:
- January 2010
- ISBN:
- 9780198529712
- eISBN:
- 9780191712791
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198529712.003.0013
- Subject:
- Physics, History of Physics
The sphere and the vertically oriented cylinder are more repeatable and predictable bob shapes than the more efficient, lower-drag prolate spheroid and football shapes. As a bob shape, prolate ...
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The sphere and the vertically oriented cylinder are more repeatable and predictable bob shapes than the more efficient, lower-drag prolate spheroid and football shapes. As a bob shape, prolate spheroids have low air drag for their volume, and give a high Q pendulum. Only football-shaped bobs, that is, bobs with pointed ends (120 degrees included angles) in the direction of travel give a higher Q. A prolate spheroid shape can be obtained by rotating an ellipse 360 degrees around its long axis. The improved repeatability and predictability of spheres and vertically oriented cylinders can be attributed to their not having the rotational alignment uncertainty that is present in the prolate spheroid and football bob shapes.Less
The sphere and the vertically oriented cylinder are more repeatable and predictable bob shapes than the more efficient, lower-drag prolate spheroid and football shapes. As a bob shape, prolate spheroids have low air drag for their volume, and give a high Q pendulum. Only football-shaped bobs, that is, bobs with pointed ends (120 degrees included angles) in the direction of travel give a higher Q. A prolate spheroid shape can be obtained by rotating an ellipse 360 degrees around its long axis. The improved repeatability and predictability of spheres and vertically oriented cylinders can be attributed to their not having the rotational alignment uncertainty that is present in the prolate spheroid and football bob shapes.
Robert James Matthys
- Published in print:
- 2004
- Published Online:
- January 2010
- ISBN:
- 9780198529712
- eISBN:
- 9780191712791
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198529712.003.0026
- Subject:
- Physics, History of Physics
A pendulum rod's air drag has a significant effect on the pendulum's Q. Many years ago, an experiment was carried out to determine the effect of bob shape on a pendulum's Q. The results showed that a ...
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A pendulum rod's air drag has a significant effect on the pendulum's Q. Many years ago, an experiment was carried out to determine the effect of bob shape on a pendulum's Q. The results showed that a football-shaped bob, pointed horizontally in the direction of swing, had the highest Q (least air drag) of any bob shape tested. The highest Q shape had a 2:1 length-to-diameter ratio. Spherical bobs had a little lower Q and right circular cylinders, with their cylindrical axis parallel to the pendulum rod's axis, had even lower Q. This chapter describes an experiment to measure the effect of the pendulum rod on Q. The pertinent rod variable is the rod's diameter. The data show that the Q decreases as the rod's diameter increases, and that the pendulum's Q with a spherical bob is 6-20% better than with a cylindrical bob. Better Q means proportionately better timekeeping.Less
A pendulum rod's air drag has a significant effect on the pendulum's Q. Many years ago, an experiment was carried out to determine the effect of bob shape on a pendulum's Q. The results showed that a football-shaped bob, pointed horizontally in the direction of swing, had the highest Q (least air drag) of any bob shape tested. The highest Q shape had a 2:1 length-to-diameter ratio. Spherical bobs had a little lower Q and right circular cylinders, with their cylindrical axis parallel to the pendulum rod's axis, had even lower Q. This chapter describes an experiment to measure the effect of the pendulum rod on Q. The pertinent rod variable is the rod's diameter. The data show that the Q decreases as the rod's diameter increases, and that the pendulum's Q with a spherical bob is 6-20% better than with a cylindrical bob. Better Q means proportionately better timekeeping.
Robert James Matthys
- Published in print:
- 2004
- Published Online:
- January 2010
- ISBN:
- 9780198529712
- eISBN:
- 9780191712791
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198529712.003.0030
- Subject:
- Physics, History of Physics
The rate of a pendulum clock is affected by air pressure. As the air pressure increases, the clock slows down, and vice versa. The basic cause is that the pendulum floats in a sea of air, and when ...
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The rate of a pendulum clock is affected by air pressure. As the air pressure increases, the clock slows down, and vice versa. The basic cause is that the pendulum floats in a sea of air, and when the density of the air changes, the effective weight of the pendulum changes by a small but significant amount. A pendulum's sensitivity to air pressure depends on bob shape and density, and is in the range of 0.2-0.4 second per day per inch of mercury. A pendulum clock is normally set to run true over some length of time, meaning a nominally zero time error is obtained at the average air pressure during that time period. This chapter shows that a clock's time error varies considerably with location. In addition, the predominant effect of air pressure is long-term time error, not short term, as any effects of one year or more in duration are considered long term.Less
The rate of a pendulum clock is affected by air pressure. As the air pressure increases, the clock slows down, and vice versa. The basic cause is that the pendulum floats in a sea of air, and when the density of the air changes, the effective weight of the pendulum changes by a small but significant amount. A pendulum's sensitivity to air pressure depends on bob shape and density, and is in the range of 0.2-0.4 second per day per inch of mercury. A pendulum clock is normally set to run true over some length of time, meaning a nominally zero time error is obtained at the average air pressure during that time period. This chapter shows that a clock's time error varies considerably with location. In addition, the predominant effect of air pressure is long-term time error, not short term, as any effects of one year or more in duration are considered long term.
Robert James Matthys
- Published in print:
- 2004
- Published Online:
- January 2010
- ISBN:
- 9780198529712
- eISBN:
- 9780191712791
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198529712.003.0036
- Subject:
- Physics, History of Physics
At atmospheric pressure, a pendulum is slightly buoyant to a ‘sea’ of air. This buoyancy causes the pendulum's timing to be a little sensitive to the air's density, and consequently to its pressure. ...
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At atmospheric pressure, a pendulum is slightly buoyant to a ‘sea’ of air. This buoyancy causes the pendulum's timing to be a little sensitive to the air's density, and consequently to its pressure. Timing error can be corrected mechanically by putting a small bellows-supported weight on the pendulum. As the air pressure increases, the bellows shrinks and lowers the weight resting on top of it, speeding up the pendulum to compensate for its natural slowdown with increasing pressure. This assumes that the bellows' weight is located in the pendulum's upper half. If located in the lower half, the bellows-supported weight must hang below the bellows instead of sitting on top of it. The effect of the air pressure variations can also be corrected for electronically, using a silicon-based pressure sensor, some electronic circuitry, and an electromagnetic (coil and magnet) pendulum drive. This chapter describes an electronic circuit that corrects for a pendulum's air pressure variations.Less
At atmospheric pressure, a pendulum is slightly buoyant to a ‘sea’ of air. This buoyancy causes the pendulum's timing to be a little sensitive to the air's density, and consequently to its pressure. Timing error can be corrected mechanically by putting a small bellows-supported weight on the pendulum. As the air pressure increases, the bellows shrinks and lowers the weight resting on top of it, speeding up the pendulum to compensate for its natural slowdown with increasing pressure. This assumes that the bellows' weight is located in the pendulum's upper half. If located in the lower half, the bellows-supported weight must hang below the bellows instead of sitting on top of it. The effect of the air pressure variations can also be corrected for electronically, using a silicon-based pressure sensor, some electronic circuitry, and an electromagnetic (coil and magnet) pendulum drive. This chapter describes an electronic circuit that corrects for a pendulum's air pressure variations.
Robert James Matthys
- Published in print:
- 2004
- Published Online:
- January 2010
- ISBN:
- 9780198529712
- eISBN:
- 9780191712791
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198529712.003.0001
- Subject:
- Physics, History of Physics
This chapter deals with simple pendulums and with several things that can be done to improve their accuracy. Most of the items have only a minor effect on accuracy, but they add up. The pendulum ...
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This chapter deals with simple pendulums and with several things that can be done to improve their accuracy. Most of the items have only a minor effect on accuracy, but they add up. The pendulum should be enclosed in a case to protect it from the air currents of an open room, which will push the pendulum around and give erratic timing. A metal pendulum rod is recommended over a wooden one. If the pendulum is not temperature compensated, a low thermal expansion metal like iron must be chosen for the pendulum rod. If the pendulum is not temperature compensated, the bob must be supported at its bottom edge rather than at its middle or top edge. Other tips: use a low drag bob shape, walls dose to the pendulum cause a problem with relative humidity; slide the top end of the suspension spring up and down through a narrow slot; keep the number of piece parts and mechanical joints in a pendulum to a minimum.Less
This chapter deals with simple pendulums and with several things that can be done to improve their accuracy. Most of the items have only a minor effect on accuracy, but they add up. The pendulum should be enclosed in a case to protect it from the air currents of an open room, which will push the pendulum around and give erratic timing. A metal pendulum rod is recommended over a wooden one. If the pendulum is not temperature compensated, a low thermal expansion metal like iron must be chosen for the pendulum rod. If the pendulum is not temperature compensated, the bob must be supported at its bottom edge rather than at its middle or top edge. Other tips: use a low drag bob shape, walls dose to the pendulum cause a problem with relative humidity; slide the top end of the suspension spring up and down through a narrow slot; keep the number of piece parts and mechanical joints in a pendulum to a minimum.
Roger Cousens, Calvin Dytham, and Richard Law
- Published in print:
- 2008
- Published Online:
- May 2008
- ISBN:
- 9780199299126
- eISBN:
- 9780191715006
- Item type:
- chapter
- Publisher:
- Oxford University Press
- DOI:
- 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199299126.003.0003
- Subject:
- Biology, Ecology, Plant Sciences and Forestry
This chapter discusses traits that determine dispersal of propagules by different vectors. It pays special attention to dispersal by air, water, animals, and humans, since these vectors have received ...
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This chapter discusses traits that determine dispersal of propagules by different vectors. It pays special attention to dispersal by air, water, animals, and humans, since these vectors have received the greatest attention in scientific literature. It is clear from morphological and chemical traits that many species have evolved an enhanced ability to be dispersed by particular vectors. However, propagules may be moved by a number of vectors, both physical and biological. There is variation in these traits between species, between and within populations, and among propagules on the same plant. Mass, volume, and area determine the propensity of any propagule to be moved in air and water. Dispersal on the outside of animals is correlated with propagule shape, mass, and adhesive ability, while size relative to the mouth of the animal and chemical constituents determine which species will be ingested and how long they might be carried.Less
This chapter discusses traits that determine dispersal of propagules by different vectors. It pays special attention to dispersal by air, water, animals, and humans, since these vectors have received the greatest attention in scientific literature. It is clear from morphological and chemical traits that many species have evolved an enhanced ability to be dispersed by particular vectors. However, propagules may be moved by a number of vectors, both physical and biological. There is variation in these traits between species, between and within populations, and among propagules on the same plant. Mass, volume, and area determine the propensity of any propagule to be moved in air and water. Dispersal on the outside of animals is correlated with propagule shape, mass, and adhesive ability, while size relative to the mouth of the animal and chemical constituents determine which species will be ingested and how long they might be carried.
