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The great age of crusading in the Middle East, from 1095 to 1291, witnessed a collision between peoples inspired by rival religions, each of which had its own conception of Holy War. Crusading was the sole reason the Latins had arrived in the East. For the Muslims, Jihad was a sacred duty which their alien elite used to bond the diverse peoples of the area to their rule. Contemporaries correctly noted that there was a special asperity in such warfare. In the great contest in the Middle East from 1095 to 1291 terrible things happened, but they happened in all wars, and even in the crusades surrender and capitulation were possible, albeit beset with difficulties. This was because neither side had the means to conduct unremitting warfare. Moreover members of the ruling classes on both sides wanted to be spared in the event of defeat or capture.

This chapter focuses on material culture, using both Greek and Roman analogues in discussing the sculpture at National Heroes’ Acre in Zimbabwe. It compares the formal and thematic aspects of the continuous narrative of the Second Chimurenga (the struggle for freedom and independence from colonial rule) with those of classical monuments. Its analysis of technique, material, and form, draws on the Ara Pacis and Trajan’s Column, but it also considers comparative examples from ancient and modern sculpture that subvert a simple ‘classical influence’ model. In particular, the chapter addresses the relationship between Heroes’ Acre and the two thousand year old tradition of Korean public sculpture, as well as the monument to the People’s Heroes on Tiananmen Square in China, thus opening up further questions about patterns of migration of thematic and stylistic affinities in public sculpture.

In the early years of Reconstruction, a number of black citizens, white Radical Republicans, and several novelists called for reparations for the formerly enslaved. Chapter 4 focuses especially on Lydia Maria Child’s A Romance of the Republic (1867) within the context of post–Civil War calls for reparations. The chapter argues that Child strategically revises the antebellum era’s discourse of families and interracial intimacy, so that Romance represents a major effort to present alternative routes, justifications, and strategies for, and the potential results of, economic redistribution from whites to blacks. Melodramatic fiction, with its long history in the slavery context of exploring the relationship between what legal scholar Adrienne Davis terms the “legal” and the “sexual” families, provided Child, in the postwar context, with a vocabulary for reimagining interracial sexuality and individuals’ access to family money.

The author describes England's conquests by land during the late war and traces the origin of the war with Tippoo Sultan. He reflects on the events of the war and Napoleon Buonaparte's invasion of Egypt, the siege of Acre, the battle between the second confederacy and France, Buonaparte's arrival in France and his dissolution of the National Assembly, the defeat of a Turkish army at the hands of the French, Buonaparte's threat to invade England, Lord Nelson's destruction of some of the French boats, and the conclusion of peace.

Edison’s kinetoscope, launched in 1893 after his success with the phonograph, continued the 19th century’s fascination with reproductive novelties, also typified by the stereoscope. Kinetoscopes, however, were expensive and cumbersome, encouraging entrepreneurs to look for cheaper ways of acquiring them, which led two Greeks, Georgiades and Trajedis, to commission Paul to build machines for them, since the kinetoscope was not patented outside the United States. When Edison refused to supply new films, Paul turned to a photographer, Birt Acres, to collaborate with him in creating a camera. With this, they made some sixteen films in early 1895, the first to be successfully exhibited in Britain, before parting company acrimoniously at the end of May. Thereafter they would give different accounts of responsibility for the camera, while both continuing to use the films it had made. Paul opened his own kinetoscope display near his workshop in Hatton Garden, followed by a larger number running at the Empire of India exhibition in Earls Court, which he later said led to considering how to make such entertainment more efficient.

This chapter discusses William Mac-Creary Burwell's White Acre vs. Black Acre, a proslavery novel that relates with humor the history of the quarrel between the North and the South with reference to slavery. In this novel, Burwell implies that the antislavery movement is a threat to the ideal society of white racial unity and egalitarianism. He also rejects white abolitionists' self-representation as selfless advocates for the enslaved African Americans, revealing them as amoral exploiters of vulnerable blacks.

The 1990s rape novels depict contested stories of sexual assault by employing the rhetorical techniques of postmodernism and writing about trauma to eschew the linear narration of realism that imposes certain textual interpretations. The portrayal of rape and incest in these novels echoes the pattern of trauma experienced by their characters in their complicated narration and, often, lack of tidy resolution. This model of rape fiction offers a compelling explanation to readers for the varying portrayals of rape and sexual violence seen in contemporary society, countering those who dismiss charges of sexual abuse as exaggerated or untrue.

During the next phase of the history described in this book, the AFSC dispatched three workers to Israel to distribute emergency relief under UN auspices and to work toward the rehabilitation and resettlement of both Arab and Jewish refugees. It was in fact able to distribute some relief to Jewish prisoners of war and to Jewish orphans and immigrants, but the new Israeli government quickly assumed responsibility for aiding the Jewish refugees and asked the AFSC to distribute United Nations supplies to impoverished Arabs only. Often the Israeli government ordered the AFSC volunteers not to provide food to Arabs who had returned to their homes from across the border, mostly from southern Lebanon. After the Tur'an and Acre projects ended, the AFSC continued to focus on small-scale community development and co-existence projects rather than large-scale emergency relief and also expanded its diplomatic and peacemaking efforts.

Chapter 4 looks at the scientific struggle to determine carrying capacities and the political struggle to impose them on ranchers in the form of stocking rates. It took the Forest Service decades of concerted effort just to develop a basic inventory of its rangelands, and even when data were available the problem of converting an ever-changing volume of forage into a fixed number of livestock was a matter of chronic uncertainty and debate. Fixing stocking rates to match average conditions ensured that there would be excess grass in wet years and excessive livestock in dry ones; perennial disputes with ranchers predictably ensued. Publicly, the agency made bold claims about the condition of the nation’s rangelands, invoking solid-looking numbers to defend itself against ranchers, rival agencies and critics in Congress. Internally, however, the scientists conceded that determining carrying capacities was fraught with problems. Then, at mid-century, an apparent solution was found: economical, standardized methods of quantifying both the successional stage and the volume of forage of a given range. It was not actually a solution, as would become apparent over time, but it represented an important final step in consolidating the authority of range science.

This chapter explores the origin of John Sinclair's political arithmetic of land use to determine the precise measure of marginal soil still available for improvement in the Highlands. The changing scene of conservative reaction among Sinclair's Scottish allies is surveyed, including the activities of the Highland Society of Scotland and the chemical project of Archibald Cochrane, the Earl of Dundonald. This is followed by an examination of Sinclair's agitation in Parliament and the Board of Agriculture. These threads converge into a broader thesis about island consciousness. Sinclair's ambition with his political arithmetic to quantify the environmental limits of the nation preceded the better-known pessimistic political economy of Malthus by several years. Ecological strains multiplied because of the rapid British population growth in the second half of the eighteenth century, but in the nineteenth century, these limits were overcome thanks to the “ghost acres” of the colonies and the transition into a new industrial society based on mineral energy and steam power.

Barely noticeable against the backdrop of Brazil’s growing reputation as a development powerhouse in agroindustry and infrastructural construction, inhabitants of the Amazon region are engaged in a “quiet revolution” to challenge the dominant development paradigm. An emergent vision of endogenous, complex pre-Columbian systems of resource use parallels the surprising ingenuity of present-day Amazonian communities. One important experiment in the westernmost state of Acre builds on grassroots local social movements and a rich cultural history to construct an ambitious state-wide program that accelerates forest-based development while promoting citizenship. The tensions between market-oriented strategies, persistent inequality, and endogenous cultural development models pose continuing challenges; maintaining the dual commitment to forest-based development and to equitable social inclusion will depend on continued political support at all levels in this rapidly changing environment.

This chapter completes the Glasgow story covering the huge expansion of teaching and research in astronomy locally, nationally and internationally from the 1950s. Following Smart's retirement, Peter Sweet was appointed as Chair holder; he had international acclaim through the headings of ‘Eddington-Sweet circulation’ and ‘Sweet-Parker magnetic recombination’. His research into solar matters led to the analyses of data from satellite platforms advanced by his student John Brown who later became 10^th Astronomer Royal for Scotland, the first not to have direct connection with Edinburgh University, and then 10th holder of the Glasgow Regius Chair. Solar space-based studies now form the main research themes of the group. Another strong research theme has been in astrodynamics under the lead of Professor Archie Roy. New observatories at Acre Road and Cochno are described. Optical polarimetry both from observational and theoretical standpoints has also been a successful theme. Instruments developed in Glasgow have been taken to observatories in Arizona and South Africa. In 1986, the independence of a separate Astronomy Department ended by amalgamation with Natural Philosophy to form the Department of Physics and Astronomy, this reflecting the changes of the general scene of developing associations of cosmology and particle physics.

This essay explores the political and discursive mechanisms Brazilian writer Da Cunha employs to build a historical past for Brazil in the Amazon, while simultaneously discrediting Bolivia and Peru’s territorial demands on the Acre region in Amazonia. Building his argument on boundary-making history, cartographical data, and nationalistic feelings, Torres argues that Da Cunha crafts a compelling case for Brazil’s rightful purchase of Acre and expansion of its frontiers in two ways. Firstly, Da Cunha identifies the value of the Amazon, whether as a political, economic, or even symbolic capital that can be utilized to lay the grounds for a diplomatic defense, and therefore lawfulness of their territorial claims. Secondly, Torres goes on to argue that Da Cunha is aware of the decisive nature of his mission for the mapping of a terrain visited only by local Indians and Peruvian rubber tappers. This consciousness leads him to compose a history for Brazil in the Amazon with the intention of nationalizing the territory; in other words, to turn an abstract and alien place into one concrete narrative in which the uprooted nation is reunited and homogenized under a common and shared identity.

The appeal of hops to gamblers. Disputes and law suits over dried hops. Frequent revisions of the Law to close illegal practices. Management of tithes for the clergy led to other disputes. Seasonal markets at Weyhill Hampshire and Southwark, London. 1860s attempt to bring hop markets under one roof, the Hop Exchange in Southwark failed. A great concentration of hop buildings in Southwark decimated in the Blitz. High profitability was offset by periods of loss. Years of argument in Parliamentary Committees about reintroducing Import Duties on Hops,

Unveiled in 1957, the Mackles Brothers’ $10 down, $10 a month sales campaign brought millions in revenue, and led to the creation of the publically-traded General Development Corporation (GDC) and other so-called “Land Giants,” huge corporations based in Miami that began converting huge stretches of Florida scrub brush and swampland in planned communities like Port Charlotte. In 1962, the Mackles left GDC to found the Deltona Corporation, which developed a 17,000-acre stretch of cattle land between Deland and Daytona Beach north of Orlando into the city of Deltona, and began projects at Marco Island and Spring Hill. GDC had Port Charlotte and eight other communities going; Del Webb had Sun City Center near Tampa; Jack and Leonard Rosen had Gulf American developments at Cape Coral and Golden Gate; while “d-CON” rat poison magnate Lee Ratner developed Lehigh Acres east of Fort Myers. In time, other Land Giants included the Arvida Corporation, the AMREP Corporation, Cavanagh Communities, and ITT, who by the mid-1960s had staked out over one million uninhabited lots, which they peddled through an army of trained and manipulative salesmen who enticed buyers with easy-to-pay installment contracts.

This chapter traces the first leg of Jonathan Daniels's trip through the textile mill towns of North and South Carolina and into Tennessee. His ambivalent attitude toward working-class white southerners related to the popularity of poor-white caricatures in Erskine Caldwell's novels Tobacco Road and God's Little Acre. Daniels saw the impact of the Civilian Conservation Corps in Great Smoky Mountains National Park and pondered the effects of the Tennessee Valley Authority in Knoxville, Norris, and Chattanooga. TVA commissioner David Lilienthal reassured him that New Deal programs were committed to grassroots democracy rather than social planning by outsiders. Yet Daniels was conscious of the challenges to segregation and white supremacy the New Deal was likely to bring. Wary of federal intervention in the South, Daniels looked to the road ahead with even greater concerns about far left and far right, Communist and proto-fascist, alternatives.

This chapter provides new statistics on the entry, exit, and growth of farms using data from the U.S. Census of Agricultures from 1978 to 1997. Entry and exit statistics can reflect sales or leases of an existing farm and thus do not directly correspond to the movement of land in or out of agricultural production. Both the small farms and the very largest farms are increasing as a share of the total farms during the period 1978 to 1997. The average farm size in acres is larger for surviving farms than it was for either exiting or entering farms during the four subperiods. The microanalysis of turnovers reveals considerable structural change underlying the traditional aggregate indicators of farm structure. There is large-scale reallocation of outputs and inputs in agriculture. The majority of surviving farms change their farm size.