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Today coral reefs, perhaps more than other marine systems, are suffering from numerous pressures. As a result many have succumbed as functioning ecosystems. Nutrients and industrial pollution, shoreline alterations, diseases of corals and other important groups of organisms, and over-extraction of fish, invertebrates and even the limestone rock itself, have all contributed to the demise of about one third of the world's reefs. More recently, climate change, notably a rise in sea temperature which has led to coral bleaching and then death of component corals, has added to the stress imposed on this ecosystem. In future, ocean acidification, sea level rise and increased storms will add further stress. Many of these factors interact, making the precise responses of reefs to these changes very complex.

Fossils potentially provide direct evidence on how changes in growth strategies may have affected diversification patterns in geologic time. New strategies may have allowed some species to exploit new ecological opportunities or contributed to their demise. This chapter discusses the following topics: ocean acidification in the past and today; major patterns of larval evolution in the oceans; climate change and mammalian developmental evolution; Jurassic sharks; survival and diversification in the early mammalian lineage; and islands as experiments in life history evolution.

This chapter examines the impact of the so-called “nuisance beavers” on the landscape. It argues that “nuisance beaver” is a misnomer, since damage to crops, tree plantations, roads, water supplies, and recreational facilities such as golf courses and campgrounds results from human encroachment on the beaver's habitat, not the other way around. It also considers how the beaver's recent spectacular expansion of its range southward from wilderness to developed land has intensified the conflict between humans and animals. It shows that the beaver causes economic losses by flooding and softening roads as well as flooding often tens of acres of farmland and golf courses. Finally, it asks whether the beaver can help in the fight against acid precipitation or contributes more to the acidification of many bodies of water.

This chapter lists the natural and manmade causes of frog malformations. The natural causes of malformations include wounds from failed predation attempts, fish excrement, extreme tadpole densities, lathyrogens, nutritional deficiencies, ultraviolet-B radiation, diseases, temperature, hereditary factors, and parasites. Several manmade causes of amphibian malformations include acidification, radioactive pollution, ozone depletion, heavy metals, retinoids, agricultural chemicals, and xenobiotics. The chapter also discusses the correlation between morphology and cause of malformation type.

This chapter reviews the current state of knowledge about the diversity in physiological responses (including energy metabolism, acid–base balance, and biomineralization) to ocean acidification (OA) in four major taxonomic groups of marine calcifiers—corals, molluscs, crustaceans, and echinoderms. The interactive effects between acidification and other commonly occurring environmental factors, such as temperature, salinity, hypoxia, and trace metals, on the physiology of these animal calcifiers is reviewed. Assessment of the inter-phylum and inter-species variability in response of OA (either alone or in combination with other stressors) is critical in identifying most vulnerable ecosystems as a focus for conservation efforts, reducing the impact of other stressors such as pollution, and aquaculture efforts to improve resilience of existing stocks of economically important marine organisms.

Disturbances disrupt ecosystem processes, thereby affecting the distribution and abundance of biota. Disturbances alter light and temperature regimes, carbon dioxide and nutrient fluxes, and productivity. The disturbance of one ecosystem factor is likely to affect most others, as biogeochemical cycles are coupled — to each other and also to landscape and anthropogenic factors. This chapter addresses how organisms respond to alterations of ecosystem processes in the air, soil, and water. Specifically, how do disturbances alter terrestrial light levels, air temperature, carbon dioxide levels, soil nutrients, soil pH, and soil organisms? In aquatic habitats, how do disturbances alter nutrient fluxes, enrichment, and acidification? In addition, transfers of energy and matter across interfaces of aerial, terrestrial, and aqueous parts of an ecosystem are covered. The responses of productivity to disturbance are also examined.

This chapter details the development of the regional air pollution information and simulation model (RAINS) in 1984, a project which has been retrospectively described as one of the highest achievements of IIASA, substantiating East-West collaboration beyond scientific diplomacy. RAINS consisted of three blocs: pollution generation, atmospheric processes, and environmental impact, with further submodels to investigate emissions, long-range transport, and acidification. The model was interactive: a policy maker could select a particular national pathway of energy use, a strategy of pollution control, and environmental impact indicators. On the basis of this information, the computer model simulated the interaction of these three systems, enabling the user to examine the consequences of different alternatives to control acidification.

In the face of concerted opposition to reducing fossil fuel emissions from industry, ideas about the importance of obtaining scientific evidence of environmental harm underwent a significant shift in the mid-1980s. Coal industry representatives continued to claim that expensive pollution controls should not be installed while the science of acid rain was still "uncertain." Yet the potentially serious environmental risks of doing nothing continued to grow, as West German scientists found evidence that their country might also be experiencing the effects of acid rain. Rather than continue to debate whether scientists had obtained sufficient proof of the dangers from fossil fuels, European regulators instead began developing the idea of a precautionary approach to pollution policies. The precautionary principle, as they redefined it, gave them a way to act with “uncertain” knowledge and undercut the ability of industry to further delay the imposition of regulations. Under pressure from the European Communities, Britain's coal industry tried to buy themselves more time before needing to implement expensive control technology through a scientific "bribe" to Scandinavian scientists. But despite their efforts, the British government ultimately acceded to demands from the European Communities to reduce air pollution from their coal industry.

This chapter provides an overview of the challenges that Ocean and Coastal Law faces in responding to climate change impacts. First, it describes the geological history of climate change and explains the mechanisms behind the recent anthropogenic alterations in the Earth’s climate precipitated by fossil fuel emissions. Second, it discusses the impacts of these changes on ocean acidification, stratification, thermal expansion, shifting atmospheric cells, tropical cyclone activity, and saltwater intrusion into coastal freshwater. The chapter reviews the impacts of temperature on a variety of scales from cellular, organism, population, and ecosystem level using species-specific case studies. It also examines information on the impacts and potential impacts of temperature change on major coastal habitats such as seagrass, coral reefs, and mangroves. The chapter concludes with an assessment of trends in climate change impacts on marine resources by region.

This chapter highlights that the United States has the ability and the duty under existing U.S. law to regulate carbon dioxide pollution that is causing ocean acidification. Specifically, it explains how the Clean Water Act and other environmental laws may be brought to bear to force such reductions. The Clean Water Act is the nation’s strongest law protecting water quality, and it specifically regulates changes in acidity. The chapter discusses new developments under the Clean Water Act concerning waters impaired by acidification, and how the pollution controls under the law may apply to regulation of carbon dioxide. The chapter considers Washington State as a case study because it is at the forefront of adopting legal and policy approaches to ocean acidification.

The most significant driver of ocean acidification globally is rising CO₂ concentrations in the atmosphere, which result in increasing concentrations of dissolved CO₂ in seawater. Because this major contributor to ocean acidification is not a conventional water pollutant that is discharged from a point source directly into a receiving water, the Clean Water Act is a limited tool to curb ocean acidification. In contrast, the Clean Air Act provides direct legal mechanisms by which greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions can be curtailed, potentially reducing atmospheric concentrations and thereby slowing further ocean acidification. This chapter explains EPA’s efforts to date to regulate GHGs under the Clean Air Act and explores the role of potential future regulations under the CAA as a tool to address ocean acidification.

This chapter provides an overview of the key physiological responses in marine algae and invertebrates exposed to ultraviolet radiation. It outlines the importance of spectral irradiances and biological weighting functions and discusses in what ways UV-B radiation may influence the responses of marine organisms to stressors associated with climate change and pollution, including ocean warming, elevated pCO₂ and ocean acidification, desiccation, and salinity. This chapter also evaluates whether the interaction of UV-B and these other stressors could impact physiological processes in marine organisms, and where multiple-stressor interactions should be considered when determining the impact of climate change on marine ecosystems. Finally, the chapter discusses possible cellular mechanisms for stressor interactions, with an emphasis on oxidative stress, and additional areas for future research.

Sharks and rays are among the most threatened aquatic vertebrate taxa. This is due to a combination of their slow generation times, exploitation within the fisheries, and habitat degradation. Climate change was added as an additional, major threat to sharks and rays in the first decade of the 21st century. While marine protected areas are becoming more widespread, managing and conserving sharks and rays is complicated. Yet, the conservation physiology toolbox can be used to address such challenges. Here, we highlight studies from the Physioshark project, a conservation physiology research programme initiated to understand how human-induced stressors, primarily climate change, will affect tropical sharks and rays and the consequences for the health and viability of populations. We also highlight how other research teams from around the world have taken physiological approaches to understanding conservation problems for sharks. We then emphasize the importance of public outreach and education about the conservation issues sharks encounter, the benefits of using social media to disseminate key concepts, publications, presentations, media, and successes, and we underscore the power of storytelling through digital media as an important means for attracting attention to research, which can result in support and action.

Changes in seawater chemistry driven by ocean acidification are altering the physiological performance and ecology of marine biota. Ocean acidification effects on calcification, photosynthesis, and neurophysiological functions differ between taxa and life stages, and such differential responses can lead to important ecological shifts in populations and communities. Two of the main challenges in predicting the ecological effects of ocean acidification are (1) integration across these levels of organization, from seawater chemistry to multi-species interactions, and (2) assessing the synergistic effect with other climate stressors that operate in parallel. While the literature is full of examples of taxa with high sensitivity, a small proportion of taxa appears resilient or displays some ability to acclimate or adapt to changes in inorganic carbon chemistry. Knowledge of the specific energetic costs of acclimation to ocean acidification is scarce, but energetic trade-offs are likely required in these resilient types to maintain physiological processes such as calcification under low pH conditions. Ocean acidification must be investigated in the context of other climate stressors, and new depth and temperature ranges will require complex adaptation strategies. High latitude and upwelling regions are already experiencing pronounced chemical shifts and, in some cases, seasonal calcium carbonate undersaturation, and many calcifiers are responding physiologically and ecologically to those changes. Although there is substantial uncertainty in the predictions of future ecosystem structures, it appears inevitable that the composition and function of many marine ecosystems will be altered in the near future due to the rapidly progressing acidification and warming of the oceans.

Ultraviolet B radiation (UVBR, 280–320 nm), the most biologically damaging portion of the solar spectra reaching the Earth’s ground, received considerable scientific attention after the discovery of the spring stratospheric ‘ozone hole’ formation in the late 1970s over Antarctica. Recently, similar low ozone conditions were observed over the Arctic and occasionally at lower latitudes. Furthermore, expected ocean acidification, increased surface water temperatures, and modifications in the structure of the water column due to global change expanded the concerns regarding the potential damage of global change to the structure of marine food webs. This chapter reviews the effects of UVBR on various marine ecosystems. Introduction of the chapter gives a description of factors that influence the UVBR intensities that reach these ecosystems such as latitude, season, stratospheric ozone layer thickness, and penetration within the water column. Then, the chapter depicts the effects of UVBR on the food webs of some important marine ecosystems, such as polar oceans, coastal waters, fronts and upwellings, oceanic gyres, and benthic ecosystems including coral reefs. Finally, this chapter investigates the potential interactions of enhanced UVBR along with other climate change stressors such as global warming and ocean acidification.

Since the mid-20th century we have been living in a new geological epoch, Anthropocene, characterized by an overwhelming impact of human activity on the Earth’s ecosystems, leading to mass species extinction by habitat destruction, pollution, global climate warming, and homogenization of biota by intra- and intercontinental transfer of species. Crustaceans are among the most diverse and species-rich animal groups inhabiting predominantly aquatic ecosystems, listed as among the most threatened ecosystems. Global threats include ocean and freshwater acidification, eutrophication, pesticide, hormone and antibiotic load, coastline modification, habitat destruction, overharvesting, and the introduction of invasive species. Many crustaceans are threatened by human-induced modifications of habitats, while others are themselves threats—crustaceans are among the most common invasive species. Those non-indigenous species, when established and integrated, become important components of existing communities, strongly influencing other components directly and indirectly, including by species replacement. They are a threat mostly to species with similar ecological niches, most often to other crustaceans. It is hard to be optimistic about the future of crustacean biodiversity. We may rather expect that growing human pressure will variously further accelerate the non-natural dispersal and extinction rate.

Global climate change will significantly affect mangroves and seagrasses. Rising atmospheric CO₂ and concomitant ocean acidification will probably have only minor effects. Increasing temperature will cause a shift in geographical distribution of many species, in a poleward direction: this has already been observed. Rising sea levels, depending on the setting, may allow landward expansion of mangroves and seagrasses, or, where this is not possible, ‘squeezing’ and loss of area. Both mangroves and seagrasses may play an important part in countering the impact of climate change, through their role in coastal protection and in sequestration of carbon.

Climate models report that the environmental changes resulting from excess CO₂ and heat absorption by the ocean already reach many deep-ocean margins, basins, and seas. Decadal monitoring programmes have confirmed significant warming and deoxygenation trends down to the abyss, which combine with CO₂-enriched, more corrosive conditions. Although the resolution of current models does not account for the typical mesoscale seafloor heterogeneity, cumulative impacts on biodiversity and productivity hotpots are anticipated. The growing interest in deep-sea resource exploitation has shed light on the lack of knowledge about current climate-driven disturbance and potential cumulative threats at great depth. Assessing the sensitivity of deep-sea ecosystems to temperature increase combined with oxygen and resource decline is emerging as a growing challenge. The natural patchiness of deep-seafloor habitats and associated deep-sea diversity patterns inform about environmental constraints over space, but the temporal dynamics of these systems is not well known. Experimental studies are required to assess the physiological limits and explore the adaptation and acclimation potential of foundation species exposed to various forms of abiotic stress. The case of cold-water corals is particularly illustrative of the potential synergistic effects of climate stressors, including warming, acidification, deoxygation, and reduced food availability. Addressing ecosystem vulnerability also requires dedicated monitoring efforts to identify the current and future drivers of climate-change impacts on deep-sea habitats. United Nations policy objectives for protected high-sea biodiversity and healthy oceans and seas drive the momentum towards better climate-change forecasting over the ocean-depth range and related integrated observing strategies.

The vast majority of crustaceans are aquatic, living in either marine or freshwater environments. Marine crustaceans—such as copepods, in particular—are ubiquitous in the oceans and perhaps the most numerous metazoans on Earth. Because crustaceans occur in all marine habitats, their larvae are exposed to highly diverse and sometimes variable environmental conditions, including extreme situations in which various environmental factors exert significant effects on larval growth and development. This chapter first describes the effects of food availability on crustacean larvae. Food paucity is a commonly occurring scenario in the wild, which can directly affect larval growth and development and, in severe cases, results in mortality. In the subsequent sections, we cover the effects of temperature and salinity—the two most prominent physical parameters in the aquatic environments—on growth and development of crustacean larvae. We then discuss the influence of other important physicochemical factors in aquatic environments on larval growth and development, including dissolved oxygen, light, ocean acidification, and pollutants. Finally, the last two sections of this chapter discuss synergistic effects of different environmental factors and suggest future research directions in this field.