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Zhang Xuecheng Versus Dai Zhen: A Study in Intellectual Challenge and Response in Eighteenth-Century China

Ying-shih Yü

Josephine Chiu-Duke and Michael S. Duke (eds)

in Chinese History and Culture: Seventeenth Century Through Twentieth Century

This examination of the intellectual relationship between Dai Zhen and Zhang Xuecheng (1738-1801) throws light on the inner complexities as well as tensions in the academic community of ... More

This examination of the intellectual relationship between Dai Zhen and Zhang Xuecheng (1738-1801) throws light on the inner complexities as well as tensions in the academic community of eighteenth-century China. It shows that Dai’s influence on Zhang was much more profound and enduring than previously believed, that Zhang knew that Dai’s philology was seeking to understand the Confucian Dao, and that a true philosophical vision worthy of pursuit could only be built on solid philological grounds. The article also traces the origin of Zhang Xuecheng’s dictum that “the Six Classics are all history.’”Less

Letter on Learning to My Clansman Runan1

in On Ethics and History: Essays and Letters of Zhang Xuecheng

This chapter presents the English translation of a letter written by Zhang, which contains a lengthy quote attributed to the brilliant and famous scholar Dai Zhen. The central point of the quote, ... More

This chapter presents the English translation of a letter written by Zhang, which contains a lengthy quote attributed to the brilliant and famous scholar Dai Zhen. The central point of the quote, which Zhang endorsed heartily, is that students need to know a great deal of technical, background information in order to read the different classics with any degree of comprehension; to study the classics without such knowledge is a waste of time. Zhang goes into considerable detail recounting and lamenting his own, mostly misguided, early efforts at learning, but then he uses these pieces of autobiography, as well as the quote from Dai Zhen, to emphasize several of his own most cherished and original insights.Less

On the Dao1

in On Ethics and History: Essays and Letters of Zhang Xuecheng

This chapter presents the English translation of Zhang's most comprehensive and important essay. Zhang understood the title yuan dao to mean both “to trace the dao or Way back to its historical ... More

This chapter presents the English translation of Zhang's most comprehensive and important essay. Zhang understood the title yuan dao to mean both “to trace the dao or Way back to its historical source,” and “to provide a complete analysis describing what it essentially is.” Zhao traces the evolution of the dao through three distinctive historical periods and explains why a grasp of this history is critical for understanding how past as well as contemporary thinkers misunderstand the nature of the dao, and therefore act in misguided and unproductive ways. Zhang's criticisms are aimed primarily at well-meaning yet misguided Confucians who misunderstood the very nature of the dao and therefore corrupted and misdirected the Confucian tradition.Less

Conventional Convictions

in On Ethics and History: Essays and Letters of Zhang Xuecheng

This chapter presents the English translation of one of Zhang's essays, which explores what it is to arrive at legitimate moral judgments. It begins by arguing that all convictions begin with doubt, ... More

This chapter presents the English translation of one of Zhang's essays, which explores what it is to arrive at legitimate moral judgments. It begins by arguing that all convictions begin with doubt, but then takes several interesting and unexpected turns. Zhang argues that most people “know” in a shallow sense the same moral truths that morally wise people know, but that only the latter know the justifying reasons behind such judgments. Nevertheless, those who attain this deeper understanding must be on guard for a peculiar kind of moral failure. They must not succumb to the temptation to take their well-grounded moral knowledge as a private discovery or personal achievement; to do so distorts both the true character of any truth—that it is simply part of the dao and thereby belongs to everyone—and threatens to undermine the value of such truths—when people try to hide away such insights, control their dissemination, or use them to gain personal fame, wealth, or power.Less

Virtue in a Litterateur

in On Ethics and History: Essays and Letters of Zhang Xuecheng

This chapter presents the English translation of Zhang's essay offering a complement of sorts to the similarly titled “Virtue in an Historian.”. In this work, Zhang is concerned with the more ... More

This chapter presents the English translation of Zhang's essay offering a complement of sorts to the similarly titled “Virtue in an Historian.”. In this work, Zhang is concerned with the more subjective qualities that those who specialize in literature must cultivate in order to be true to their chosen vocation. Zhang offers advice that applies to the litterateur as both critic of other writers and author of his or her own works. In either case, in order to perform well the aspiring litterateur must engage in a form of moral self-cultivation. One must be a certain kind of person in order to produce the ideal kind of writing. Zhang counsels the aspiring litterateur to cultivate an attitude of reverential attention, a state of mind in which the spirited aspects of one's nature—one's qi—are collected and controlled. By combining sympathetic concern and reverential attention, the litterateur can be emotionally engaged but not overwhelmed or disoriented by his feelings.Less

Distinguishing What Only Seems to Be

in On Ethics and History: Essays and Letters of Zhang Xuecheng

This chapter presents the English translation of an essay by Zhang, which provides not only a subtle account of a widely condemned human failing but also echoes of his personal disappointment in the ... More

This chapter presents the English translation of an essay by Zhang, which provides not only a subtle account of a widely condemned human failing but also echoes of his personal disappointment in the intellectuals of his own age. The central theme of the essay originally was addressed by Kongzi, who lamented that the conduct of one of his disciples made him abandon his original trust that people would reliably do as they say. After several bad episodes involving [his follower] Zai Wo, Kongzi adopted a new attitude and policy toward others: “to listen to their words and then observe their actions.” Kongzi also expressed a strong dislike for things that seem to be good but in fact are not; this idea appears in the title of Zhang's essay, and variations of this refrain are heard throughout its course. Another less evident but clearly present influence on Zhang's thought in this essay is Mengzi's warnings about the effects that subtle but pernicious doctrines can have upon the unsuspecting mind. Zhang clearly thought that, like Mengzi, he was someone who “understood words” and had a mission to awaken a slumbering world to the dangers of false virtue.Less

Reply to Shen Zaiting Discussing Learning1

in On Ethics and History: Essays and Letters of Zhang Xuecheng

This chapter presents the English translation of a reply written by Zhang to Shen Zaiting. Zhang says that learning must be aimed at personal understanding; its true goal is moral improvement. The ... More

This chapter presents the English translation of a reply written by Zhang to Shen Zaiting. Zhang says that learning must be aimed at personal understanding; its true goal is moral improvement. The aspiring student of the dao must be on guard so as not to be seduced by promises of worldly renown or reward or led astray by the popularity of intellectual fashions. Different intellectual fashions come and go, and everyone has its underlying merits, but one must realize that each is but one facet of the dao. Students must keep their eyes on the true prize: a personal understanding of the Way, and the first step in this process is grasping what the dao is and what it is not; this, of course, is the focus of Zhang's “On the Dao.” Zhang then presents a summary of his view of the dao.Less

Letter on Learning to Chen Jianting1

in On Ethics and History: Essays and Letters of Zhang Xuecheng

This chapter presents the English translation of a letter written by Zhang, which offers insight on the motivation and intention behind his most important essay, “On the Dao.” The letter begins with ... More

This chapter presents the English translation of a letter written by Zhang, which offers insight on the motivation and intention behind his most important essay, “On the Dao.” The letter begins with Zhang's noting the criticisms his essay had received and responding that at least these critics did not really understand the central argument of the essay or the larger project, the General Principles of Literature and History, of which it is a part. He suggests that the likely source of their misunderstanding is the fact that his essay shares its title with several famous predecessors, but notes that the point of his essay is fundamentally different from any of them. Zhang goes on to explain that “On the Dao” was written to show the historical origins of the dao in a way that would make clear what the dao essentially is. He further says that “On the Dao” plays a vital role within his larger work, the General Principles of Literature and History, which is why it is the lead essay in this collection of writings.Less

On Learning

in On Ethics and History: Essays and Letters of Zhang Xuecheng

This chapter presents the English translation of an essay in which Zhang continues to explore and expand upon the themes one finds in “On the Dao.” Zhang himself describes the essay as a further ... More

This chapter presents the English translation of an essay in which Zhang continues to explore and expand upon the themes one finds in “On the Dao.” Zhang himself describes the essay as a further elaboration of the major issues he discussed in “On the Dao”.Less

A Treatise on Teachers1

in On Ethics and History: Essays and Letters of Zhang Xuecheng

This chapter presents the English translation of an essay by Zhang, which is an explicit response to Han Yu's well-known essay with the same title. Against Han Yu, Zhang argues that the highest kinds ... More

This chapter presents the English translation of an essay by Zhang, which is an explicit response to Han Yu's well-known essay with the same title. Against Han Yu, Zhang argues that the highest kinds of knowledge can only be acquired from certain very special kinds of teachers. Zhang develops this idea into an intriguing distinction between replaceable and irreplaceable teachers. One can learn facts and techniques from the former, but if one is interested in the sense, style, and significance of the dao, one must seek the latter: a teacher who personally embodies this knowledge. Moreover, irreplaceable teachers can communicate this more esoteric type of wisdom only through direct and intimate interactions with their students or disciples. Invoking the style as well as the language of Chan Buddhism, Zhang insists on a “mind-to-mind transmission” of the Confucian dao.Less

The Difficulty of Being Understood

in On Ethics and History: Essays and Letters of Zhang Xuecheng

This chapter presents the English translation of one of Zhang's essays. The essay argues that really knowing a person is not a matter of being able to recognize his appearance, manner, or name, but ... More

This chapter presents the English translation of one of Zhang's essays. The essay argues that really knowing a person is not a matter of being able to recognize his appearance, manner, or name, but of seeing into and appreciating his heart-mind. He argues that real understanding is very hard to come by and not something that one should expect either from one's contemporaries or from posterity. Zhang illustrates his points with a number of historical examples that show semblances or counterfeits of genuine understanding. Taken as a whole, the essay presents an analytical lament, bordering on an expression of despair, over ever really being understood or appreciated.Less

The Principles of Literature

in On Ethics and History: Essays and Letters of Zhang Xuecheng

This chapter presents the English translation of one of Zhang's essays. This essay analyzes several issues that often occupied neo-Confucian thinkers. The main theme is the nature of great ... More

This chapter presents the English translation of one of Zhang's essays. This essay analyzes several issues that often occupied neo-Confucian thinkers. The main theme is the nature of great literature; of equal importance, though, are four related questions: how one can develop an appreciation for such literature, how one can teach such appreciation to others, how one can become a great writer, and how one can teach the ability to write well to others. Zhang's primary aim is to argue against any formulaic or mechanical method for learning to appreciate or produce great literature, or for teaching such appreciation or literary artistry to one's students.Less

Letter on Learning to Zhu Canmei of the Grand Secretariat1

in On Ethics and History: Essays and Letters of Zhang Xuecheng

This chapter presents the English translation of a letter written by Zhang to Zhu Cangmei, which not only describes Zhang's own course of learning and specific advice to his young protégé but also an ... More

This chapter presents the English translation of a letter written by Zhang to Zhu Cangmei, which not only describes Zhang's own course of learning and specific advice to his young protégé but also an analysis of how people in general should pursue an understanding of the dao. Zhang self-consciously modeled his composition on a justly famous letter from Han Yu to his student Li Yi. But Zhang uses the occasion to review and apply some of the central claims of his general philosophical view.Less

The Analogy of Heaven

in On Ethics and History: Essays and Letters of Zhang Xuecheng

This chapter presents the English translation of an essay, which argues for the similarity between examples of what we today would distinguish as ethical and scientific knowledge. Zhang believes that ... More

This chapter presents the English translation of an essay, which argues for the similarity between examples of what we today would distinguish as ethical and scientific knowledge. Zhang believes that attempts to capture the development and expression of ethical norms with a formal, unvarying theory or system will develop similar problems over time, as Heaven is something beyond the ken of human beings—we only see traces of its workings in the phenomenal world—and its operation and future trajectory are things we can at best only approximate. The most we can do is sketch its basic nature, discern its general direction, cultivate ourselves to be sensitive to the inevitable drift that is bound to come, and be prepared to respond to and accommodate such deviations. While this argument does not present a wholly compelling account of the natural sciences, it can be seen as a very sensible stance toward the ongoing process of history.Less

Breadth and Economy1

in On Ethics and History: Essays and Letters of Zhang Xuecheng

This chapter presents the English translation another of Zhang's essays. This one is organized around the distinctive and perennial theme of Confucian scholars: how does one balance breadth of ... More

This chapter presents the English translation another of Zhang's essays. This one is organized around the distinctive and perennial theme of Confucian scholars: how does one balance breadth of learning with a grasp of what is most essential? Taking its cue from Analects 6.27, the essay argues that there is no formulaic answer to this question but that such a concern must be part of how one approaches learning. Zhang's particular account of this problem appeals to and takes shape around the structure of his speculative historical scheme. According to Zhang, it was relatively easy for those who lived during the Golden Age of the Zhou dynasty to master every aspect of the dao, because they learned about the Way in the course of their daily lives. In some sense, everything they did was an expression of the dao. However, such is not the case for those who live in the ages following the breakup of the Golden Age. For people of later times, learning about the dao is much more difficult; they do not spend their lives immersed in the ideal culture of the Zhou. Because of this disadvantage, they must dedicate concerted effort even to grasp a single, limited aspect of the dao.Less

Virtue in an Historian

in On Ethics and History: Essays and Letters of Zhang Xuecheng

This chapter presents the English translation of an essay by Zhang, which describes a distinctive aspect of his view about the more subjective side of proper historical understanding. It seeks ... More

This chapter presents the English translation of an essay by Zhang, which describes a distinctive aspect of his view about the more subjective side of proper historical understanding. It seeks explain a special quality or Virtue needed in the person of a good historian. There is a human tendency to regard one's insights as one's personal property, but to do this is to commit a substantial moral error that can be the source of significant, bad consequences, both for oneself and others. Zhang describes this kind of mistake with language taken from the Zhuangzi. He cautions that as one comes to understand the dao, one must be careful not to let the human—i.e., one's efforts to understand the dao—overshadow or interfere with its Heavenly—i.e., natural and spontaneous—character.Less