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This chapter introduces contemporary welfare-to-work programmes in the United States and Britain. It focuses on the way contemporary welfare-to-work programmes are characterized by the conditioning of benefits upon obligations. Employing the same four rationales used when assessing the Poor Law programmes (deterrence, economics, morality and quid-pro-quo), the chapter draws attention to the existence of the conditional attribute of welfare programmes by outlining the rationales motivating each type of conditioning.

This chapter argues that the Liberal Welfare Reforms of 1906–11, which created a safety net reducing the economic insecurity associated with industrial capitalism, marked a watershed in the history of British social welfare policy. Their timing is explained by increased middle-class knowledge of workers' insecurity and by the greater willingness of Parliament to act as a result of growing working-class political influence. The chapter then compares British social welfare policies with social policies elsewhere in Western Europe. Britain's welfare reforms did not take place in isolation—several European nations adopted social welfare policies in the decades leading up to 1914. Indeed, Britain was a bit of a latecomer in the adoption of social programs, although it caught up quickly after 1906 and by the eve of the First World War was a leader in social welfare protection.

This chapter explores the story of the 1942 Beveridge Report and the beginnings of the welfare state. The policies proposed by Beveridge and the 1945–48 legislation were logical extensions of government's expanding role in social welfare policy beginning with the Liberal Welfare Reforms. This does not mean that the importance of the postwar legislation should be downplayed. Because of the adoption of the National Health Service, universal coverage, and equality of treatment, Britain after 1948 deserves to be called a welfare state, while Edwardian and interwar Britain do not. Unfortunately, despite the enthusiasm with which the public greeted the welfare state, the postwar policies did not eliminate economic insecurity.

This chapter forms the land case study for the UK. As with all empirical chapters it explores several key themes in relation to food charity in the UK: • the history of food charity in the national context and the relationship between the welfare state and charities; • the nature of and drivers behind contemporary food charity provision; • key changes in social policy and their impact on rising charitable food provision; • and the social justice implications of increasing need for charitable assistance with food. The chapter concludes with critical reflections on the future direction of food charity provision in the UK and the implications of this.

Welfare reform has been central to UK policymaking since the election of a Conservative-led government in 2010. The welfare reforms apply across the whole of the country, but their impacts vary profoundly from place to place – a consequence that government seems largely to have ignored. The measures introduced are targeted at working age people which leads to a disproportionate impact on areas with weaker local labour markets. This chapter draws on a range of official statistics, including local area claimant data, to document the financial losses in different parts of the country. It concludes that although the overall financial loss to claimants proved less than originally anticipated it remains very large, even before the implementation of Universal Credit and the post-2015 benefit changes, and that one of the main impacts of welfare reform is to hit the poorest places hardest.

This chapter forms the land case study for Italy. As with all empirical chapters it explores several key themes in relation to food charity in Italy: • the history of food charity in the national context and the relationship between the welfare state and charities; • the nature of and drivers behind contemporary food charity provision; • key changes in social policy and their impact on rising charitable food provision; • and the social justice implications of increasing need for charitable assistance with food. The chapter concludes with critical reflections on the future direction of food charity provision in Italy and the implications of this.

This chapter forms the land case study for Slovenia. As with all empirical chapters it explores several key themes in relation to food charity in Slovenia: • the history of food charity in the national context and the relationship between the welfare state and charities; • the nature of and drivers behind contemporary food charity provision; • key changes in social policy and their impact on rising charitable food provision; • and the social justice implications of increasing need for charitable assistance with food. The chapter concludes with critical reflections on the future direction of food charity provision in the Slovenia and the implications of this.

This final chapter provides a comparative analysis of several key themes across the case studies. These are: the nature and scale of food charity in Europe; relationships between changes in welfare provision and the growth of food charity and the shifting role of charity more generally across the cases; the role of food supply in shaping food charity; and the social justice implications of changing welfare states and the growth of food charity. The chapter ends by setting out the implications of this evidence base for future research and policy analysis.

This chapter forms the land case study for Spain. As with all empirical chapters it explores several key themes in relation to food charity in Spain: • the history of food charity in the national context and the relationship between the welfare state and charities; • the nature of and drivers behind contemporary food charity provision; • key changes in social policy and their impact on rising charitable food provision; • and the social justice implications of increasing need for charitable assistance with food. The chapter concludes with critical reflections on the future direction of food charity provision in the Spain and the implications of this.

This chapter forms the land case study for the Netherlands. As with all empirical chapters it explores several key themes in relation to food charity in the Netherlands: • the history of food charity in the national context and the relationship between the welfare state and charities; • the nature of and drivers behind contemporary food charity provision; • key changes in social policy and their impact on rising charitable food provision; • and the social justice implications of increasing need for charitable assistance with food. The chapter concludes with critical reflections on the future direction of food charity provision in the Netherlands and the implications of this.

Chapter Six recounts the decimation of Lawrence's public services in the 1980s and 1990s, with an emphasis on public safety and education. Major metropolitan centers experienced a "tale of two cities" phenomenon in this era (substantial reinvestment in some neighborhoods along with deepening crisis in others); in smaller postindustrial cities, however, economic decline often continued to define the city as a whole. Lawrence's crisis is situated in the larger battles over public spending in the late twentieth century, especially state-level education and welfare reform legislation. These reform efforts illustrate a distinctly suburban political agenda that came to reject the liberal welfare state when many voters saw it as privileging poor, urban communities of color.

From October 2013, the UK government is introducing a new ‘super’ means-tested benefit, universal credit, bringing together various payments for those in and out of work. Its main goals are to simplify the benefits system, improve work incentives and combat ‘welfare dependency’. This chapter outlines the main provisions of the proposed scheme and reactions to it. The core of the chapter is an examination of universal credit from a gender perspective, in particular in relation to access to income for individuals in couples. Specific features discussed include the effects on ‘second earners’ and the arrangements for payment. The author argues for ‘welfare reform’ such as this to be analysed in terms of not only the numbers of men and women affected in terms of resources, but also what impact it may have on gender roles and relationships; the potential for individuals to achieve financial autonomy; and gender inequalities within the household, both immediately and in the longer term.

This chapter details two think tank institutional developments of the late 1980s and 1990s which furthered conservatism during this time. First, the chapter details the emergence of the Democratic Leadership Council to show the multiple ways in which this group – and its more formal think tank arm the Progressive Policy Institute – furthered conservatism. Far from a halt to the conservative trend of the Reagan years, the group's development of the political identity “New Democrat” helped create a space for conservatism within the Democratic Party. This chapter details the development of this new identity and its power under the presidency of Bill Clinton – namely how it was wielded to pass a host of long-term conservative public policy goals including the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) and welfare reform. Secondly, this chapter details how Republican-aligned conservative think tanks—rather than compromising with a Democratic president—continued to advance their agenda within the state (through Congress) and through “civil society,” with the emergence of new conservative media outlets to disseminate their messages.

The chapter provides an overview of the key arguments and structure to the book. Of central importance is to understand austerity as a class strategy involving labour discipline through attacks on social protection and employment relations. Central to the book’s argument is the need to understand the geographical nature of labour inequalities and impacts of austerity cuts in the ‘left behind’ regions. The chapter highlights the way industrial relations and employment relations inter link as Work first policies undermine employment rights and reinforce labour market insecurity and inequality. The chapter briefly outlines the role of agency and the capacities of trade unions and social movements to negotiate and resist austerity are seen as crucial to an understanding of the contemporary welfare and employment crisis. The origins of the book is outlined, arising from previous comparative work on the Danish welfare and employment model which provides relevant lessons when discussing the link between labour and social movements and welfare regimes and alternatives to neoliberalism

This chapter sets out the background and context to the UK’s implementation of austerity measures following the financial crash of 2007/08. It examines the principles underlying the enactment of the Bedroom Tax policy before outlining the new regulations on room restrictions that have been imposed on those claiming housing benefit in the social rented sector. It discusses the controversy surrounding its implementation as well as the ways in which it has impacted different regions of the UK. This chapter also reflects on changes to housing benefit more widely and suggests that we are seeing the return of the ‘housing question’ in post-industrial Britain as austerity policies undermine housing affordability. The final part of this chapter outlines the structure of the book.

This chapter forms the land case study for Finland. As with all empirical chapters it explores several key themes in relation to food charity in Finland: • the history of food charity in the national context and the relationship between the welfare state and charities; • the nature of and drivers behind contemporary food charity provision; • key changes in social policy and their impact on rising charitable food provision; • and the social justice implications of increasing need for charitable assistance with food. The chapter concludes with critical reflections on the future direction of food charity provision in Finland and the implications of this.

This chapter forms the land case study for Germany. As with all empirical chapters it explores several key themes in relation to food charity in Germany: • the history of food charity in the national context and the relationship between the welfare state and charities; • the nature of and drivers behind contemporary food charity provision; • key changes in social policy and their impact on rising charitable food provision; • and the social justice implications of increasing need for charitable assistance with food. The chapter concludes with critical reflections on the future direction of food charity provision in Germany and the implications of this.

Revisiting the EU-wide tensions of the sovereign debt crisis of 2010, this chapter identifies the religious roots of the demand for fiscal rectitude in ordo-liberal and puritan demands for frugal self-discipline. Yet, beyond the different religious histories across Europe, we identify the impulse towards welfare reformation within Ireland, despite being a late-comer to activation policy. Briefly restating the arguments of the book, we argue that welfare reform seeks to transform individuals by subjecting them to trials and tests, with the market as judge of their worth – based on long-standing theological impulses. However, here we also identify counter tendencies, the urge to alleviate suffering and the refusal of judgement in a charitable view – not just giving support generously, as the word charity also means love, care, understanding, a relationship of respect for individual circumstances and choices. Rebalancing the welfare state simply requires unconditional payments, neither a revolutionary nor reformist logic, just a return to the spirit of generosity.