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After St. Paul, Niagara

William D. Green

in Degrees of Freedom: The Origins of Civil Rights in Minnesota, 1865-1912

Chapter 14 recounts the alliances between McGhee and W.E.B. Du Bois that deepens into friendship. During one of Du Bois’ trips to St. Paul McGhee proposes that Du Bois launch the Niagara Movement ... More

Chapter 14 recounts the alliances between McGhee and W.E.B. Du Bois that deepens into friendship. During one of Du Bois’ trips to St. Paul McGhee proposes that Du Bois launch the Niagara Movement that became the precursor to the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People.Less

A Defining Moment for Mcghee

William D. Green

in Degrees of Freedom: The Origins of Civil Rights in Minnesota, 1865-1912

Chapter 13 documents the conference of Washington’s National Afro-American Council (NAAC) that was held in St. Paul, 1902, organized by McGhee. What was intended to be his springboard to national ... More

Chapter 13 documents the conference of Washington’s National Afro-American Council (NAAC) that was held in St. Paul, 1902, organized by McGhee. What was intended to be his springboard to national prominence turned instead into a “defining moment” when McGhee became disillusioned with the Wizard of Tuskegee.Less

The Legacy

William D. Green

in Degrees of Freedom: The Origins of Civil Rights in Minnesota, 1865-1912

This chapter records the final days of McGhee, Wheaton (who had relocated to New York), and John Adams who showed ambivalence to Washington during the Wizard’ decline in power. Upon Adams’ death, his ... More

This chapter records the final days of McGhee, Wheaton (who had relocated to New York), and John Adams who showed ambivalence to Washington during the Wizard’ decline in power. Upon Adams’ death, his family selects a young journalism major at the University of Minnesota, to take over the newspaper. His name was Roy Wilkins, who would become president of the NAACP.Less

A Certain Class of Citizens

William D. Green

in Degrees of Freedom: The Origins of Civil Rights in Minnesota, 1865-1912

Chapter 7 documents the massing complaints of black Minnesotans against the discrimination they continued to encounters and a resolve to organize to confront it, associating for a time with militant ... More

Chapter 7 documents the massing complaints of black Minnesotans against the discrimination they continued to encounters and a resolve to organize to confront it, associating for a time with militant New York editor T. Thomas Fortune. They dampened their support after white Minnesota patrons withheld support from the Minnesota group.Less

The Sons of Freedom

William D. Green

in Degrees of Freedom: The Origins of Civil Rights in Minnesota, 1865-1912

Chapter 4 looks at the attempt of black leaders to create an organization to aid blacks in acquiring farms, apprenticeships, and quality education.

Maurice Jernigan Takes a Stand

William D. Green

in Degrees of Freedom: The Origins of Civil Rights in Minnesota, 1865-1912

Chapter 2 focuses on the role that barbers played to advance black equality.

The Renaissance of the Cakewalk

William D. Green

in Degrees of Freedom: The Origins of Civil Rights in Minnesota, 1865-1912

Chapter 9 examines how Minnesota’s black political and business elite, in recognizing Washington’s power, embraces Washington’s agenda for Southern black advancement through accommodation while ... More

Chapter 9 examines how Minnesota’s black political and business elite, in recognizing Washington’s power, embraces Washington’s agenda for Southern black advancement through accommodation while seeking to distance themselves from the widespread stereotype of “low class colored folks.” Adams’ Appeal becomes less strident in championing the rights of black Minnesotans.Less

Wheaton and McGhee: A Tale of Two Leaders

William D. Green

in Degrees of Freedom: The Origins of Civil Rights in Minnesota, 1865-1912

Chapter 10 focuses on the rise of two black leaders in Minnesota who form a rivalry—Republican Frank Wheaton and Democrat Fredrick McGhee. Both men were Bookerites.

A Call to Action

William D. Green

in Degrees of Freedom: The Origins of Civil Rights in Minnesota, 1865-1912

Chapter 12 recounts how St. Paul was not immune to mob violence against black men; yet black leaders protested white-on-black attacks in the South, saying nothing about two near lynchings that had ... More

Chapter 12 recounts how St. Paul was not immune to mob violence against black men; yet black leaders protested white-on-black attacks in the South, saying nothing about two near lynchings that had occurred in 1896, within their own capital city.Less

When America Came to St. Paul

William D. Green

in Degrees of Freedom: The Origins of Civil Rights in Minnesota, 1865-1912

Chapter 1 shows the fall and rise of racial equality in Minnesota, using as an illustration the life of Jim Thompson.

On Becoming a Good Republican

William D. Green

in Degrees of Freedom: The Origins of Civil Rights in Minnesota, 1865-1912

Chapter 3 looks at the celebration of black suffrage rights and the challenge of white patrons to blacks to work hard to be farmers and skilled laborers as a means of becoming bona fide Republicans, ... More

Chapter 3 looks at the celebration of black suffrage rights and the challenge of white patrons to blacks to work hard to be farmers and skilled laborers as a means of becoming bona fide Republicans, paying no heed to the racism that barred blacks from acquiring farms and apprenticeships.Less

Mr. Douglass and the Civilizable Characteristics of the Colored Race

William D. Green

in Degrees of Freedom: The Origins of Civil Rights in Minnesota, 1865-1912

Chapter 5 looks at persistence of discrimination in public accommodations and the reluctance of patrons to end discriminatory practices.

Senate Bill no. 181

William D. Green

in Degrees of Freedom: The Origins of Civil Rights in Minnesota, 1865-1912

Chapter 6 examines the national effort to end discrimination as reflected in Congress with enactment of the Civil Rights Act of 1875, the lack of impact that it had to secure rights to public ... More

Chapter 6 examines the national effort to end discrimination as reflected in Congress with enactment of the Civil Rights Act of 1875, the lack of impact that it had to secure rights to public accommodations, and the shifted focus of the black community to developing racial pride, and promote civic, educational and social institutions. Meanwhile, a newly formed newspaper, the Western Appeal began the organ of black consciousness, spearheaded by John Q. Adams.Less

Professor Washington, Leader of the Race

William D. Green

in Degrees of Freedom: The Origins of Civil Rights in Minnesota, 1865-1912

Chapter 8 looks at the rise of Booker T. Washington as the new leader for the black race, anointed by the national white business elite.

The Election of J. Frank Wheaton

William D. Green

in Degrees of Freedom: The Origins of Civil Rights in Minnesota, 1865-1912

Chapter 11 examines the campaign that led to Wheaton’s election as the first black legislator in Minnesota history.