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The Endgame of the Negotiations and the Future of an Enlarged European Union

Milada Anna Vachudova

in Europe Undivided: Democracy, Leverage, and Integration After Communism

Ten new members, eight of them post-communist states, joined the EU on 1 May 2004. This chapter takes up three issues that will shape the future of an enlarged EU. First, the EU’s active leverage has ... More

Ten new members, eight of them post-communist states, joined the EU on 1 May 2004. This chapter takes up three issues that will shape the future of an enlarged EU. First, the EU’s active leverage has had a substantial impact on the political and economic institutions of the new members: has it promoted robust democratic institutions and a vigorous economy, as I have argued, or did it in fact undermine them? Second, the endgame of the negotiations forced unfavourable terms of accession onto the new members: will these unfavourable terms translate into a permanent second-class status? Or will the new members, bargaining hard to improve their position and importing diversity, bring European integration to a standstill? I argue that both concerns are overblown. Third, why did the EU decide to enlarge to these eight post-communist states, and how much further it is likely to go? The EU’s active leverage has been working in parts of the Western Balkans and in Turkey, and it could work elsewhere. The costs of foreclosing future membership for countries such as Turkey, Ukraine, or Belarus could be substantial, yet EU elites and publics are far from reconciled to further enlargements.Less

Black Sea, 1860–1990

Charles King

in The Black Sea: A History

The end of empires and the rise of nation-states meant that many of the historical connections around the sea were severed. The sea came to be an object of desire for both state-builders and ... More

The end of empires and the rise of nation-states meant that many of the historical connections around the sea were severed. The sea came to be an object of desire for both state-builders and nationalists. In the twentieth century, modernization projects in both the Soviet Union and Turkey led to the sea's environmental degradation and a genuine ecological crisis.Less

Syria

Eyal Zisser

in Elections in Asia and the Pacific: A Data Handbook: Volume I: Middle East, Central Asia, and South Asia

Includes all relevant information on national elections and referendums held since the proclamation of the Turkish Republic in 1923. Part I gives a comprehensive overview of Turkey's political ... More

Includes all relevant information on national elections and referendums held since the proclamation of the Turkish Republic in 1923. Part I gives a comprehensive overview of Turkey's political history, outlines the evolution of electoral provisions, and presents the current electoral legislation in a standardized manner (suffrage, elected institutions, nomination of candidates, electoral system, organizational context of elections). Part II includes exhaustive electoral statistics in systematic tables (numbers of registered voters, votes cast, the votes for candidates and/or parties in parliamentary and presidential elections and referendums at national and regional level, the electoral participation of political parties, the distribution of parliamentary seats, etc.).Less

The Lure of Economic Prosperity Versus Ethno‐Nationalism: Turkish Cypriots, the European Union Option, and the Resolution of Ethnic Conflict in Cyprus

Tozun Bahcheli

in Minority Nationalism and the Changing International Order

It is with considerable reluctance that the EU has undertaken a key role in resolving the Cyprus conflict. In offering Cyprus the prospect of membership, the EU hopes that it will provide a ... More

It is with considerable reluctance that the EU has undertaken a key role in resolving the Cyprus conflict. In offering Cyprus the prospect of membership, the EU hopes that it will provide a sufficient incentive to both the Greek Cypriot and Turkish Cypriot communities to settle their differences––in particular, to persuade the latter that the economic benefits and minority safeguards provided by EU membership are sufficient to overcome the fears of domination that drive Turkish Cypriot desire for self‐rule. This chapter analyses the limits of economic incentives for achieving this purpose, and argues that the EU will need to address the regional (Greek‐Turkish) dimension of the dispute as well as the communal differences themselves. It remains unclear whether the admission of Turkey into the EU will suffice to bring the Turkish Cypriots into line.Less

The Dynamics of EU Enlargement in American Perspective

John A. Scherpereel

in The State of the European Union Vol. 7: With US or Against US? European Trends in American Perspective

The territorial expansion of the USA provides an interesting comparative vantage point for the recent and on-going enlargement of the European Union. Incumbents and prospective members on both sides ... More

The territorial expansion of the USA provides an interesting comparative vantage point for the recent and on-going enlargement of the European Union. Incumbents and prospective members on both sides of the Atlantic have faced similarly fundamental questions: Who are ‘we’? (When) should we apply for membership? (When) should we admit applicants? What are the normative, institutional, and policy implications of expansion? In light of the US experience, this chapter examines the European pathways to membership, decisions to expand, and power asymmetries.Less

Turkey's Kurdish Problem: Borders, Identity, and Hegemony

Ümit Cizre

in Right-sizing the State: The Politics of Moving Borders

Ümit Cizre rethinks the connections between the metaphor of boundaries as containers of democracy and the evolution of Turkish and Kurdish identities since the founding of the modern Turkey in ... More

Ümit Cizre rethinks the connections between the metaphor of boundaries as containers of democracy and the evolution of Turkish and Kurdish identities since the founding of the modern Turkey in 1919–23. The author identifies the dual nature of Turkish nationality: equal citizenship without regard to ethnicity and ethnic singularity of Turkishness. Cizre then examines Kurdish contestation of this hegemonic discourse of nationality and its link to the state's territory. The author also places the chapter's conclusions in the context of the arrest and trial of Abdullah Öcalan, the leader of the Kurdish Workers’ Party (PKK).Less

Conflict and Cooperation: American–Western European Relations (not) Redefined, 1969–1977

Geir Lundestad

in The United States and Western Europe Since 1945: From "Empire" by Invitation to Transatlantic Drift

In the late 1960s, the wider framework for and the basic structure of the North Atlantic alliance was being challenged on virtually all fronts at the same time, causing the need for a reappraisal of ... More

In the late 1960s, the wider framework for and the basic structure of the North Atlantic alliance was being challenged on virtually all fronts at the same time, causing the need for a reappraisal of relationships. These challenges included: the continuing Cold War with the Soviet Union and its allies, where the confrontation continued, but was now being combined with détente (i.e. cooperation on important military, political, and economic issues); the change in the American–European relationship resulting from Europe striking out more on its own; the perceived decline of the US by the Nixon administration and its resulting need to cooperate with the other economic centres of the world; outside Europe, the combination of the rise of OPEC and the volatility of the Middle East, which highlighted a growing energy problem that was to prove quite troublesome in Atlantic relations; and the effect of the rise of Japan and the Pacific rim in redefining the role and importance of Western Europe in the world. All these redefinitions imposed a strain on American–European relations in the period 1969–1977, but even though the resulting conflicts were now more structural than they had been earlier, they were still contained within the alliance framework, for both the US and Western Europe still needed a certain degree of cooperation and mutual dependence. The four main sections following the explanatory preamble to this chapter discuss various aspects of this conflict and cooperation between the US and Western Europe. They are: The US, Western Europe, and Détente; Nixon–Kissinger's Reappraisal of European Integration, 1969–1976; The Southern Flank [of Europe], Communism, and the US—a discussion of the political situations in Portugal, Spain, Greece, Cyprus, Turkey, Italy (and Iceland); and Conflict, but Still Primarily Cooperation.Less

Cultural Globalization in Turkey: Actors, Discourses, Strategies

Ergun Özbudun and E. Fuat Keyman

in Many Globalizations: Cultural Diversity in the Contemporary World

The modernization of Turkish society that has taken place in the twentieth century has produced a unique coexistence between secular and Islamic values.

Between Religion and Law: Politics as an Intervening Variable

Kristine Kalanges

in Religious Liberty in Western and Islamic Law

Recognizing that the construction and institutionalization of religious liberty rights is at once a political and a legal project, this chapter proceeds in two main sections. The first focuses on the ... More

Recognizing that the construction and institutionalization of religious liberty rights is at once a political and a legal project, this chapter proceeds in two main sections. The first focuses on the political and socio-cultural processes in Muslim states that have interacted over time to institutionalize Islamic law and identity at national and transnational levels. This history is essential, not least because the modern constitutions of many relevant states were adopted during the 1970s and 1980s amidst struggles marked by Arab nationalism, Islamism, and Islamic identity formation. Hence, in the second section, the constitutional consequences of these historical-political processes are explored via specific examination of religious liberty in the laws and practices of four influential countries—Iran, Turkey, Egypt, and Pakistan.Less

The Regulation of Labour Standards/Rights in Supplier Countries: The Role of Firms, Nation States, and International Organizations

Christel Lane and Jocelyn Probert

in National Capitalisms, Global Production Networks: Fashioning the Value Chain in the UK, US, and Germany

This chapter starts by examining the labour standards and rights which exist in low-wage supplier countries and the role played by national institutions — particularly the state and unions, but also ... More

This chapter starts by examining the labour standards and rights which exist in low-wage supplier countries and the role played by national institutions — particularly the state and unions, but also firms — in either strengthening or, more often, undermining them. The analysis focuses on the shortcomings of existing regulatory regimes in three sourcing countries: China, Mexico, and Turkey. The chapter additionally reviews the regulatory regimes adopted under initiatives by inter-governmental organizations, firms, industry associations, unions, and NGOs, singly or in transnational advocacy networks, to improve labour rights and standards in supplier countries and firms. It shows that because western firms' sourcing practices are complicit in causing the poor labour standards suppliers adopt, implementation and monitoring of the observance of labour standards and rights are highly problematic. Finally, the chapter indicates what kind of international regulatory regime might be effective in the future.Less

War and Partition of Ottoman Empire, 1914–1922

D. K. Fieldhouse

in Western Imperialism in the Middle East 1914-1958

In November 1914, the Ottoman empire went to war against Russia, Britain, and France. On October 31, 1918, by the Armistice of Mudros, the war ended with the Ottoman armies suffering almost total ... More

In November 1914, the Ottoman empire went to war against Russia, Britain, and France. On October 31, 1918, by the Armistice of Mudros, the war ended with the Ottoman armies suffering almost total defeat. The result was the dismemberment of the empire and, after a further four years of confusion and fighting, the emergence of the state of Turkey in Anatolia and a small part of Eastern Thrace, north of Istanbul, and of five newly defined territories under British or French control called mandates. This chapter examines why the Ottomans went to war on the side of Germany and against the Entente, and how they fought their war; the aims and war strategies of the British and French, and how they fit with the aims of the Arabs, particularly the Hashemites; and how far these various aims were realized during the period of diplomacy and fighting between 1918 and 1922.Less

The Clothing Industries in Supplier Countries: Buyer–Supplier Relations (1)

Christel Lane and Jocelyn Probert

in National Capitalisms, Global Production Networks: Fashioning the Value Chain in the UK, US, and Germany

This chapter presents a detailed analysis of two important supplier countries for mainly European buyer firms — Turkey and Romania. Turkish and Romanian firms are situated in their specific economic, ... More

This chapter presents a detailed analysis of two important supplier countries for mainly European buyer firms — Turkey and Romania. Turkish and Romanian firms are situated in their specific economic, social, and geo-political environments. The chapter enquires how national contexts have shaped firms' capabilities and their competitiveness as suppliers. It explores how supplier firms view the relationships with their buyers, with a particular focus on the distinctions they make between trading partners from different national origins.Less

Islam and the American Opportunity

Thomas F. Farr

in World of Faith and Freedom: Why International Religious Liberty Is Vital to American National Security

Chapter 9 explores how U.S. IRF policy might help undermine Islamist extremism and transnational terrorism. It describes the various forms of extremism, both Sunni and Shiite, and how traditional ... More

Chapter 9 explores how U.S. IRF policy might help undermine Islamist extremism and transnational terrorism. It describes the various forms of extremism, both Sunni and Shiite, and how traditional U.S. foreign policy assumptions have misunderstood the threat from both. It analyzes mistakes made by American diplomacy since the 1970s, including the assumption that political Islam is synonymous with Islamist extremism. It shows how the Kemalist model of privatized Islam in Turkey has beguiled and misled U.S. policymakers. It then engages creative arguments made by U.S. analysts from the Council on Foreign Relations and the Rand Corporation to show how even forward-looking analyses have missed the mark. The chapter concludes with a set of principles and strategies for U.S. policymakers as they attempt to advance American interests in the Muslim world, and in other nations where religion is playing an increasing role.Less