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Voyage on the Tigris

Mushirul Hasan

in Exploring the West: Three Travel Narratives

The author continues his pilgrimage to Nejif and presents an account of the camals of Husseiny and Assuffy. He praises the late Nabob Assuf ad Dowleh and describes the cities of Hilla and Nejif, the ... More

The author continues his pilgrimage to Nejif and presents an account of the camals of Husseiny and Assuffy. He praises the late Nabob Assuf ad Dowleh and describes the cities of Hilla and Nejif, the Mausoleum of Aly, religious contemplation, his return to Bagdad, reasons why he first went to live with the British Consul, Mr Jone's mode of living, and manner of travelling in Irac. The author embarks on the Tigris.Less

The Ordeal

Bertrand Lafont

in Everyday Life in Ancient Mesopotamia

The origins of the ordeal go back a very long way in history, and research into its oldest traces takes one back some 5,000 years to the valley of the Tigris and Euphrates. What gave its unity to the ... More

The origins of the ordeal go back a very long way in history, and research into its oldest traces takes one back some 5,000 years to the valley of the Tigris and Euphrates. What gave its unity to the civilisation that flourished there for 3,000 years was the use of cuneiform writing. ‘Invented’ by the Sumerians around 3000 BC, that writing enabled a wealth of records to be made of many political, religious, economic, cultural and social features peculiar to ancient Mesopotamia. Two of these features are attributed very early on to law and justice. All this documentation is evidence of a juridical way of thinking imprinted with empiricism, and a strongly material view of the law and justice. The second characteristic of that civilisation is the very special way it had of expressing its deep religiousness.Less

Incentives to Cooperate: Political and Economic Instruments

Shlomi Dinar and Ariel Dinar

in International Water Scarcity and Variability: Managing Resource Use Across Political Boundaries

This chapter assesses the mechanisms introduced in Chapter 4 by considering actual cases and evaluating how the mechanism or strategy used contributed to cooperation. In addition to mechanisms such ... More

This chapter assesses the mechanisms introduced in Chapter 4 by considering actual cases and evaluating how the mechanism or strategy used contributed to cooperation. In addition to mechanisms such as issue-linkage, side-payments and compensation as well as benefit-sharing, the chapter also examines foreign policy considerations and reciprocity as mechanisms or strategies for promoting cooperation. Mechanisms and strategies such as these aim to incentivize cooperation and shift the payoff structure so that it favors a mutually beneficial outcome.Less

The Destruction of Achaemenid Persia and the Creation of Seleucid Iran

Matthew P. Canepa

in Iranian Expanse: Transforming Royal Identity through Architecture, Landscape, and the Built Environment, 550 BCE-642 CE

Chapter 3 offer a new approach to the evidence that takes into account not just continuities with Persian practice, but also the Seleucid Empire’s breaks with Achaemenid traditions. I argue that the ... More

Chapter 3 offer a new approach to the evidence that takes into account not just continuities with Persian practice, but also the Seleucid Empire’s breaks with Achaemenid traditions. I argue that the Seleucid Empire strategically introduced stark and deliberately instituted changes in the Iranian world’s topography of power, architecture and religious traditions to create a new vision of Iranian, though not necessarily Persian, kingship. The Seleucids’ new topography of power and visual and ritual expressions of Irano-Macedonian charismatic kingship subsumed and transcended the traditions of Persia and Babylon alike. Ultimately, they laid the groundwork for new Iranian kingship.Less

The Sumerian Takeoff

in Ancient Mesopotamia at the Dawn of Civilization: The Evolution of an Urban Landscape

This chapter begins with a discussion of how natural and created landscapes determine, reinforce, and compound each other in modern cities and their surrounding areas, which are applicable to earlier ... More

This chapter begins with a discussion of how natural and created landscapes determine, reinforce, and compound each other in modern cities and their surrounding areas, which are applicable to earlier cases of urban transformation. A case in point appears to be the crystallization of early Sumerian civilization in the alluvial lowlands of the Tigris–Euphrates rivers of southern Mesopotamia during the Uruk period, which is radiocarbon-dated ca. 3900/3800 to ca. 3200/3100 bc. An overview of the subsequent chapters is also presented.Less

Early Mesopotamian Urbanism: Why?

in Ancient Mesopotamia at the Dawn of Civilization: The Evolution of an Urban Landscape

This chapter explores the unique ecology and geography of the alluvial lowlands of the Tigris–Euphrates rivers during the fifth and fourth millennia bc. The former gave early polities in the area ... More

This chapter explores the unique ecology and geography of the alluvial lowlands of the Tigris–Euphrates rivers during the fifth and fourth millennia bc. The former gave early polities in the area important advantages in agricultural productivity and subsistence resource resilience not possessed by potential rivals on their periphery, while the latter gave them enduring cost advantages in the accumulation and distribution of resources, both local and foreign, as a result of water transport. Derived entirely from what Cronon refers to as the “natural landscape,” these advantages created opportunities and incentives that made it both possible and probable that early Mesopotamian elites would see trade as a particularly viable way to legitimize and expand their unequal access to resources and power.Less

Malthus in the Middle East: Scarcity-Induced Water Conflicts

Hussein A. Amery

in Water and Conflict in the Middle East

Using a Malthusian framework, Chapter 3 draws parallels between political economy of the Southeast Anatolian (Güneydoğu Anadolu Projesi or GAP) dam project in Turkey that affects water flow to the ... More

Using a Malthusian framework, Chapter 3 draws parallels between political economy of the Southeast Anatolian (Güneydoğu Anadolu Projesi or GAP) dam project in Turkey that affects water flow to the downstream neighbors of Syria and Iraq on the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers and the Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam (GERD) nearing completion on the Blue Nile in Ethiopia – a project that will impound waters destined for Egypt. It finds that in each case, geographical and hydropolitical positioning are the essential elements of downstream state insecurity and therefore a significant causes of deteriorating relations within the respective river basins. While noting that although the riparian states in question have long histories of tension and distrust, the historical record shows that the vast majority of global water disputes are settled peacefully. The chapter presents evidence that in the lower riparian states, rapid population growth, infrastructure development, and climate change present adverse and cumulative effects on water supplies and water management. The author concludes with the argument that the convergence of these factors points to a likely future of water scarcity-induced conflict absent the introduction of policies to boost irrigation efficiency and improve water governance.Less

Turkish Hydro-Hegemony: The Impact Of Dams

Paul A. Williams

in Water and Conflict in the Middle East

Chapter 3 explores how Turkey, the beneficiary of nearly completed major dam projects, and situated at the headwaters of the Euphrates and Tigris rivers, is nearly in a position as the upstream state ... More

Chapter 3 explores how Turkey, the beneficiary of nearly completed major dam projects, and situated at the headwaters of the Euphrates and Tigris rivers, is nearly in a position as the upstream state to complete its long march to full hydro-hegemony – physical control over flow of water into Syria and Iraq and the Kurdish enclaves that is needed to meet much of their water requirements. Noting that the Turkish government has already used its control over water flow as leverage to pressure Syria to drop its support of the Kurdistan Worker’s Party (PKK), a separatist militia, the chapter presents evidence that hydro-hegemony can actually be operationalized to create both positive and negative outcomes for the downstream entities. Turkey’s motivations to choose either path are based on a complicated and rapidly evolving regional security architecture surveyed in the chapter.Less

A Watershed Moment: Assesing the Hydropolitics of Iraqi Kurdistan

Marcus DuBois King

in Water and Conflict in the Middle East

Chapter 4 establishes Iraqi Kurdistan as a de-facto riparian actor the Tigris and Euphrates River System explaining that it is blessed with abundant water resources that are now under increasing ... More

Chapter 4 establishes Iraqi Kurdistan as a de-facto riparian actor the Tigris and Euphrates River System explaining that it is blessed with abundant water resources that are now under increasing stress. Changing demographics, dam building in neighbouring countries, and drought have brought Kurdish hydropolitics to a critical juncture where two distinct water futures of abundance or scarcity are possible depending in large part on policy decisions limited by regional security concerns. The chapter problematizes a spectrum of potential water conflict in this context and finds that outbreaks might be sparked by three historical realities: (1) systemic precedence for hydro-hegemonic behaviour—the monopolization of water by a single country—in the Tigris and Euphrates River Basin (2) a record of deployment of the water weapon during contemporary conflicts in Syria and Iraq and (3) conflicting views of ownership and rights to the Tigris and Euphrates river among the riparian countries. Ultimately, the chapter argues that the Kurdistan Regional Government (KRG) must recognize these realities, and use this understanding to develop a comprehensive strategy that will guarantee sufficient water for Iraqi Kurdistan’s people while maintaining the ability to use water as political leverage in support of designs toward autonomy or, more altruistically, to improve the quality of life for all Iraqis.Less

Introduction

Faisal H. Husain

in Rivers of the Sultan: The Tigris and Euphrates in the Ottoman Empire

This chapter introduces the themes and arguments of the book. In particular, it explains the benefits of adopting a holistic approach to the history of the river basin that acknowledges its cultural, ... More

This chapter introduces the themes and arguments of the book. In particular, it explains the benefits of adopting a holistic approach to the history of the river basin that acknowledges its cultural, physical, and biological unity. Treating the Tigris and Euphrates as a continuous whole brings to light the magnitude and significance of river flow that fostered contacts between upstream and downstream regions. Beyond facilitating communication, the twin rivers formed the backbone of the early modern Ottoman economy in the region by supporting complementary subsistence strategies, such as irrigation agriculture, animal husbandry, and wetland exploitation. In addition to the themes and arguments, this chapter offers a brief introduction to the history of the Ottoman Empire and the ecology of the Tigris-Euphrates basin.Less

Fortresses

Faisal H. Husain

in Rivers of the Sultan: The Tigris and Euphrates in the Ottoman Empire

This chapter examines the role of river transportation in Ottoman state-building in Iraq. From the sixteenth century, the Ottoman state organized a steady supply of grains and arms to be shipped from ... More

This chapter examines the role of river transportation in Ottoman state-building in Iraq. From the sixteenth century, the Ottoman state organized a steady supply of grains and arms to be shipped from Aleppo, Diyarbakır, and Mosul to the downstream fortresses of Baghdad and Basra. The Ottoman state, as a result, could deploy in Iraq sizable garrisons capable of stabilizing its authority in a volatile frontier region. In addition, Istanbul improved the communication infrastructure of the drainage basin by investing in seaports, docks, rafts, and bridges, which smoothed the movement of men and provisions between the Mediterranean Sea and the Persian Gulf. The janissary and artillery corps deployed from the capital profited greatly from the imperial patronage of provincial religious foundations and their cadre, which buttressed the legitimacy of Ottoman hard power in the region.Less

Shipyards

Faisal H. Husain

in Rivers of the Sultan: The Tigris and Euphrates in the Ottoman Empire

This chapter provides a history of the Ottoman naval fleet in the Tigris-Euphrates basin, referred to as the Shatt River Fleet in Ottoman bureaucratic parlance. In the sixteenth century, the Ottomans ... More

This chapter provides a history of the Ottoman naval fleet in the Tigris-Euphrates basin, referred to as the Shatt River Fleet in Ottoman bureaucratic parlance. In the sixteenth century, the Ottomans established two shipyards at the two ends of the river basin—Birecik in the north and Basra in the south. Both shipyards became the administrative centers for the Ottoman navy operating on the Tigris and Euphrates. Boats of the Shatt River Fleet were fitted with light cannon pieces and played a combat and support role in Ottoman military operations. They cooperated with land forces based in the fortresses to strengthen the Ottoman presence along the eastern frontier. While the literature on naval warfare in the early modern Military Revolution has largely focused on developments taking place at sea, this chapter shows how the Ottoman Empire adapted the latest naval technologies to a fluvial landscape.Less

Arable Lands

Faisal H. Husain

in Rivers of the Sultan: The Tigris and Euphrates in the Ottoman Empire

This chapter reconstructs Ottoman irrigation policies in the Tigris-Euphrates alluvial plain. Numerous considerations shaped the Ottoman management of irrigation agriculture in the region. The ... More

This chapter reconstructs Ottoman irrigation policies in the Tigris-Euphrates alluvial plain. Numerous considerations shaped the Ottoman management of irrigation agriculture in the region. The state’s active support for agricultural development, for instance, was tied to Ottoman concepts of upholding precedent and justice. On the other hand, the ecology and location of the Tigris and Euphrates within the empire restrained whatever agricultural investment the Ottoman state desired to make in the region. Istanbul balanced those cultural, political, and environmental considerations to maintain a hybrid irrigation landscape, largely small in scale and local in character, but with a few giant canals that were administered directly by Ottoman imperial authorities.Less

Grasslands

Faisal H. Husain

in Rivers of the Sultan: The Tigris and Euphrates in the Ottoman Empire

This chapter details Ottoman policies to regulate the exploitation of grasslands in the Tigris-Euphrates alluvial plain. The flow regime of the Tigris and Euphrates created extensive pastures that ... More

This chapter details Ottoman policies to regulate the exploitation of grasslands in the Tigris-Euphrates alluvial plain. The flow regime of the Tigris and Euphrates created extensive pastures that made the alluvium a major destination for pastoral groups, particularly during the harsh summer season. The Ottoman state regulated this lucrative pastoral economy by establishing herders’ associations, such as the Ahşamat, the Qara Ulus, and Qara’ul. This policy of social aggregation facilitated the monitoring, counting, and taxation of a mobile population that was difficult to control. The chapter demonstrates that mobile pastoralism was instrumental in Ottoman economic and political expansion into the challenging, peripheral environment of Iraq.Less

Wetlands

Faisal H. Husain

in Rivers of the Sultan: The Tigris and Euphrates in the Ottoman Empire

This chapter focuses on Ottoman policies to manage the exploitation of wetlands in the Tigris-Euphrates alluvial plain. In the early modern period, ever-more powerful empires engaged in ambitious ... More

This chapter focuses on Ottoman policies to manage the exploitation of wetlands in the Tigris-Euphrates alluvial plain. In the early modern period, ever-more powerful empires engaged in ambitious wetland drainage projects in the name of improvement. This chapter offers a counterexample of an empire that used its bureaucratic and financial capabilities to benefit from the exploitation of wetland resources. The Ottoman administration paid particular attention to the cultivation of rice and the husbandry of water buffalo. Both productive activities became major sources of revenue for the state, and their sustenance depended on the ecological integrity of the Tigris-Euphrates marshes.Less

After the Flood

Faisal H. Husain

in Rivers of the Sultan: The Tigris and Euphrates in the Ottoman Empire

This chapter documents the long-term consequences of the Euphrates’ channel shift that occurred in the late seventeenth century. The rural order established by the Ottoman administration from the ... More

This chapter documents the long-term consequences of the Euphrates’ channel shift that occurred in the late seventeenth century. The rural order established by the Ottoman administration from the sixteenth century unraveled. The herders’ associations sponsored by the state disintegrated and gave way to assertive tribal confederations that regularly clashed with Ottoman authorities. To restore order, Istanbul empowered the governor of Baghdad Hasan Pasha, who fulfilled his mandate while pursuing his own personal agenda. He established a household that transformed into a provincial dynasty called the Pashalik of Baghdad, in control of the most important positions in the Ottoman provincial government. By the end of the eighteenth century, this trend toward provincial autonomy would place the most critical stretches of the Tigris and Euphrates under the command of Baghdad, which made the most important decisions related to navigation and irrigation.Less

Conclusion

Faisal H. Husain

in Rivers of the Sultan: The Tigris and Euphrates in the Ottoman Empire

This chapter summarizes the Ottoman experience in the Tigris-Euphrates basin during the early modern period and what has happened ever since. After deposing the Pashalik of Baghdad in 1831, the ... More

This chapter summarizes the Ottoman experience in the Tigris-Euphrates basin during the early modern period and what has happened ever since. After deposing the Pashalik of Baghdad in 1831, the Ottoman state pursued ambitious projects to improve navigation and irrigation along the Tigris and Euphrates. This centralizing era ended before achieving all its goals due to the outbreak of World War I. The collapse of the Ottoman Empire gave rise to three nation-states in the Tigris-Euphrates basin—Turkey, Syria, and Iraq. The political divisions of the river basin have incentivized competition in the exploitation of water resources, to the detriment of the river system as a whole. The early modern experience of the Tigris and Euphrates, therefore, is instructive. Coordination in the management of river systems, the Ottoman Empire showed, can bring about a more efficient and sustainable use of resources.Less