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Introduction

in The Power of Song: Music and Dance in the Mission Communities of Northern New Spain, 1590–1810

This introductory chapter discusses the theme of this volume which is about sacred music in mission communities throughout northern New Spain from the founding of the northern missions in the late ... More

This introductory chapter discusses the theme of this volume which is about sacred music in mission communities throughout northern New Spain from the founding of the northern missions in the late sixteenth century until the end of Spanish colonial rule. This volume is divided into three main sections. The first section examines pre-Hispanic indigenous and European liturgical music cultures prior to the cultural encounters between the groups, the second part studies the way in which the varied musical cultures came into contact within the context of evangelization in mission communities, and the final section looks thematically at the role of music and dance in reshaping time and space in northern New Spain.Less

Colonial Realities and Population Decline

Linda A. Newson

in Conquest and Pestilence in the Early Spanish Philippines

This chapter explains how the conquest and establishment of Spanish colonial rule led to a population decline in the Philippines. Once Spain had established a permanent foothold in the islands, their ... More

This chapter explains how the conquest and establishment of Spanish colonial rule led to a population decline in the Philippines. Once Spain had established a permanent foothold in the islands, their retention of the colony continued to depend on Filipino tribute and labor. Native tribute constituted one of the two main sources of Crown revenue in the Philippines, the other being taxes derived from the galleon trade. This chapter first provides an overview of Spanish bureaucracy in the Philippines before discussing the system of tribute payments and vandalas introduced to the islands, along with the polo that required Filipinos to work as forced laborers. It then considers the acquisition of land by the missionary orders, Spain's hostility toward Islam in the Philippines, and the demographic impact of the Hispano-Dutch War. It also examines how climatic change may have contributed to depopulation in the seventeenth century. It argues that the Spanish empire's dependence on the native population for the survival of the colony often led to exploitation, continuing conflict, and population decline.Less

Interpreting the Evidence

Linda A. Newson

in Conquest and Pestilence in the Early Spanish Philippines

This chapter examines the evidence that can shed light on the demographic impact of Spanish colonial rule on the Philippines and allow comparisons between population trends in the islands with other ... More

This chapter examines the evidence that can shed light on the demographic impact of Spanish colonial rule on the Philippines and allow comparisons between population trends in the islands with other parts of the Southeast Asian archipelago. Focusing on demographic trends for each major island and region in Luzon and the Visayas, the chapter shows that Spanish conquest and early colonial rule in the Philippines resulted in significant population decline that was more pervasive and prolonged than generally assumed, but varied regionally. The evidence includes early Spanish colonial sources such as letters and memorials written by the first explorers, conquistadors, and priests; civil records like fiscal accounts and censuses; ecclesiastical records; and corroborative evidence derived from records of native traditions and from archaeology. The chapter also discusses some of the problems associated with the use of early Spanish colonial sources for demographic analysis and the role of racial mixing in population losses. Finally, it considers a regional approach for evaluating the early demographic history of the Spanish Philippines.Less

Demographic Change in the Early Spanish Philippines

Linda A. Newson

in Conquest and Pestilence in the Early Spanish Philippines

This concluding chapter discusses demographic change in the Philippines during the early Spanish colonial period. The initial impact of Spanish conquest and the types of transformations the Spanish ... More

This concluding chapter discusses demographic change in the Philippines during the early Spanish colonial period. The initial impact of Spanish conquest and the types of transformations the Spanish sought to bring to native societies in Southeast Asia and in the Americas were similar. However, the Philippines differed from Spanish America in terms of geographical location, physical configuration, and the character of its natural resources and societies. This chapter considers the factors that may have contributed to low population density throughout the Philippines, and Southeast Asia more generally, in pre-Spanish times, including famines and epidemics. It also examines temporal and regional population trends in the early Spanish Philippines, with particular emphasis on the initial impact of conquest, the demographic crisis of the seventeenth century, and demographic recovery in the eighteenth century. Finally, it analyzes demographic trends in the Philippines in the wider Southeast Asian context, suggesting that the islands suffered greater population decline in part due to the more pervasive nature of Spanish colonial rule.Less

The Colla and Their Lands

Elizabeth N. Arkush

in Hillforts of the Ancient Andes: Colla Warfare, Society, and Landscape

This chapter discusses existing historical and archaeological evidence for the Colla area and its implications about the degree to which the Colla were politically unified in the Late Intermediate ... More

This chapter discusses existing historical and archaeological evidence for the Colla area and its implications about the degree to which the Colla were politically unified in the Late Intermediate period. Administrative divisions of the sixteenth century chopped the Colla area into a number of smaller sections, which corresponded in some cases with natural geographic boundaries and in others with economic differences in subsistence strategies and relationships with far-flung regions. According to the chronicles, these different sections of the Colla region had distinct histories of conquest and reconquest by the Incas. Documentary evidence from the early decades of Spanish colonial rule offers both clues and contradictions on the subject, while previous archaeological work in the Titicaca basin qualifies the longstanding narrative tradition that has grown into Qollari.Less

A World Apart?

Linda A. Newson

in Conquest and Pestilence in the Early Spanish Philippines

This book examines the demographic impact of Spanish colonial rule on the Philippines. It shows that Spain's conquest and colonization of the Philippines brought fundamental changes to the political, ... More

This book examines the demographic impact of Spanish colonial rule on the Philippines. It shows that Spain's conquest and colonization of the Philippines brought fundamental changes to the political, economic, social, and cultural life of the islands. It argues that the Filipino population suffered a greater decline in the early Spanish period than has previously been thought and that the prolonged decline brought significant changes to Filipino society even in regions that were distant from Manila. It also contends that the factors underpinning demographic trends in the Spanish Philippines were different from those in other parts of the Southeast Asian archipelago. To bolster its argument that the Spanish conquest resulted in significant population decline, the book undertakes a detailed analysis of the population in each island and region in 1565. It also suggests that the nature of Spanish rule in the Philippines was to a certain extent different from that in most parts of Spanish America.Less

Conquest and Depopulation before 1600

Linda A. Newson

in Conquest and Pestilence in the Early Spanish Philippines

This chapter examines how the Spanish conquest and colonization contributed to depopulation in the Philippines before 1600, with particular emphasis on those aspects of native society that had ... More

This chapter examines how the Spanish conquest and colonization contributed to depopulation in the Philippines before 1600, with particular emphasis on those aspects of native society that had implications for the nature of Spanish colonial rule and demographic trends in the Visayas. It first provides an overview of subsistence, settlement patterns, polities, and social practices in the Visayas and goes on to consider population estimates for the islands in 1565 and from 1565 to 1600. In particular, it discusses the population of Samar, Bohol, Cebu, Panay, and Negros, suggesting that the pre-Spanish population of the Visayas might have been about 383,000, or probably nearer 400,000. The chapter concludes by assessing the population decline in the Visayas from 1565 to 1600.Less

Cagayan

Linda A. Newson

in Conquest and Pestilence in the Early Spanish Philippines

This chapter examines the impact of Spanish colonial rule on the population of Cagayan. During the colonial period the Cagayan Valley formed the backbone of the Dominican province of Cagayan. Juan de ... More

This chapter examines the impact of Spanish colonial rule on the population of Cagayan. During the colonial period the Cagayan Valley formed the backbone of the Dominican province of Cagayan. Juan de Salcedo first made contact with the inhabitants of Cagayan during his circumnavigation of the island of Luzon in 1572, but he received a hostile reception and continued on his journey without establishing a settlement. Permanent Spanish settlement was established in Cagayan in 1581; by then much of the region had already been allocated in encomiendas. This chapter begins with an overview of Cagayan Valley in 1570, focusing on its physical geography, society, population trends, and settlement patterns. It then considers the Dominican missionaries' conversion efforts in the region, along with demographic trends. It also discusses the possible causes of population decline in Cagayan during the period, including epidemics.Less

Interior Luzon

Linda A. Newson

in Conquest and Pestilence in the Early Spanish Philippines

This chapter examines the impact of Spanish colonial rule on the population of interior Luzon, with particular emphasis on groups living within the southern and central Cordillera. It begins with a ... More

This chapter examines the impact of Spanish colonial rule on the population of interior Luzon, with particular emphasis on groups living within the southern and central Cordillera. It begins with a brief review of the incidence and timing of Spanish contacts in the southern and central Cordillera, including the regions of Ituy and Paniqui, Italon and Abaca, and Igorot territory. It then considers the demographic history of the Igorot in Benguet, Kankanai and Bontoc, and Ifugao. It also discusses Dominican missionary efforts in northern Cordillera, along with demographic trends in the entire Cordillera region. It cites population estimates for interior Luzon for the period 1570–1800 and suggests that the region experienced an overall population decline of approximately 36 percent in 1570.Less

Manila and Tondo

Linda A. Newson

in Conquest and Pestilence in the Early Spanish Philippines

This chapter examines the demographic impact of Spanish colonial rule on Manila and Tondo. When Miguel López de Legazpi decided to transfer the base of Spanish operation in the Philippines to Luzon, ... More

This chapter examines the demographic impact of Spanish colonial rule on Manila and Tondo. When Miguel López de Legazpi decided to transfer the base of Spanish operation in the Philippines to Luzon, Manila became the islands' secular and ecclesiastical capital. The establishment of Manila radically transformed the way of life of the Tagalog inhabitants of what became the jurisdiction of Tondo. As a result, the region became the main focus of immigration by bureaucrats, priests, and traders, creating new demands for food, supplies, and labor. This chapter first provides a background on Manila's pre-conquest society as well as Tondo's population in 1570 before discussing the urban transformation of Manila Bay. It then considers the introduction of tribute, vandala, and polo to Manila and Tondo, along with the arrival of missionaries aimed at bringing about the Christian conversion of the people in Manila's hinterland. It also describes the development of agricultural estates and the evolution of Manila's urban economy and concludes by assessing demographic trends in Manila and Tondo during the period.Less

Pampanga and Bulacan

Linda A. Newson

in Conquest and Pestilence in the Early Spanish Philippines

This chapter examines the decline of populations in Pampanga and Bulacan during Spanish times. Under Spanish colonial rule, the southern part of the Central Luzon Plain was shared by Pampangans, who ... More

This chapter examines the decline of populations in Pampanga and Bulacan during Spanish times. Under Spanish colonial rule, the southern part of the Central Luzon Plain was shared by Pampangans, who lived to the west of the Pampanga River, and Tagalogs, who lived to the east. The population of the Central Luzon Plain was concentrated around Manila Bay. This chapter first considers the socioeconomic background of Pampanga and Bulacan in 1570, with particular emphasis on their populations. It then discusses the introduction of tribute, vandala, and polo in Pampanga and Bulacan, along with ecclesiastical administration in both jurisdictions. It also analyzes demographic trends in Pampanga and Bulacan during the period, paying attention to population decline in the seventeenth century.Less