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The Danubian Principalities: Occupation and Reform, 1828–1834

Alexander Bitis

in Russia and the Eastern Question: Army, Government and Society, 1815-1833

This chapter covers Russia's occupation and reform of the Danubian Principalities — a classic example of the ‘weak neighbour’ policy in action. It examines Russia and the Principalities; the Second ... More

This chapter covers Russia's occupation and reform of the Danubian Principalities — a classic example of the ‘weak neighbour’ policy in action. It examines Russia and the Principalities; the Second Army and the Principalities; the wartime occupation of the Principalities in 1828–9; Kiselev and the Reform of the Principalities.Less

The Second Wave of Wars

Adam Teller

in Rescue the Surviving Souls: The Great Jewish Refugee Crisis of the Seventeenth Century

This chapter investigates how the events of the second round of wars caused further waves of Jewish refugees, this time not just within the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth but across Europe and Asia. ... More

This chapter investigates how the events of the second round of wars caused further waves of Jewish refugees, this time not just within the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth but across Europe and Asia. On one level, it could be said that Poland–Lithuania successfully weathered the storm that began with Khmelnytsky in 1648 and ended in the Peace of Andrusów some nineteen years later. However, the price it had paid for the years of war was incredibly high, so getting the country back on its feet was a very complex operation. Poland–Lithuania's Jews, too, had suffered huge losses during the wars, not the least of which was the number of Jews who had been uprooted from their homes and forced to start new lives elsewhere, often in difficult—not to say traumatic—conditions. Beyond that, many of the refugees displaced by this second wave of wars left the Commonwealth never to come back. The chapter then details the experience of these people. It looks first at the refugees in the parts of Lithuania under Russian occupation, then at those in the westerly regions where the Swedish and Polish armies fought it out in the second half of the 1650s.Less

Chechnya

in Cutting the Fuse: The Explosion of Global Suicide Terrorism and How to Stop It

This chapter examines the historical context of the Chechen separatist suicide terrorist campaign as well as its groups, goals, trajectory, targets, and trends over time. The analysis reveals that ... More

This chapter examines the historical context of the Chechen separatist suicide terrorist campaign as well as its groups, goals, trajectory, targets, and trends over time. The analysis reveals that the more accurate cause of attacks is resistance to Russian occupation and that suicide terrorism has been the weapon of last resort by the separatists after ordinary resistance failed to achieve Russian military withdrawal. The chapter also suggests that the variation in the trajectory of suicide attacks from 2000 to 2009 corresponds to counterterrorism campaigns that were first initiated by Russian occupational forces and then by the Chechen president Ramzan Kadyrov.Less

Demographic Policy and the Annihilation of the Armenians

Taner Akçam

in The Young Turks' Crime against Humanity: The Armenian Genocide and Ethnic Cleansing in the Ottoman Empire

This chapter considers how the annihilation of the Armenians, as an outcome of a sequence of decisions, led to questions arising about the possible relationship between demographic policy and ... More

This chapter considers how the annihilation of the Armenians, as an outcome of a sequence of decisions, led to questions arising about the possible relationship between demographic policy and genocidal practice. It argues that there was such a causal relationship. Demographic anxieties shaped the Armenian deportations: the population ratios where Armenians were deported and where they remained were decisive, and the deportations were carried accordingly. Only three factors appear to have prevented the ethnic cleansing of the Ottoman Greeks from escalating into genocide: the Great War had not yet begun, there was a country to which the Greeks could be expelled, and the Armenian-inhabited regions to the east were potentially subject to Russian occupation and eventual Armenian statehood.Less

Mother Love

Elizabeth Harlan

in George Sand

This chapter discusses the meeting of George Sand and the then young Polish composer Frederic Chopin. With the looming threat of the Russian occupation, Chopin fled Poland and arrived in Paris in ... More

This chapter discusses the meeting of George Sand and the then young Polish composer Frederic Chopin. With the looming threat of the Russian occupation, Chopin fled Poland and arrived in Paris in 1831, the same year Aurore Dudevant went to the capital to launch her literary career. Among the other distinguished guests at the soiree were Giacomo Meyerbeer, Eugene Sue, Heinrich Heine, and a group of Polish exiles associated with Adam Mickiewicz, who would shortly become a professor at the College de France. Although Sand was immediately taken with Chopin, the relationship got off to a slow start. “I've made the acquaintance of a great celebrity, Madame Dudevant, known by the name George Sand,” Chopin wrote his parents several days after their meeting. “But her face doesn't appeal to me at all. There's even something about her that puts me off.”Less