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The Factorization Method is not the only sampling method. This final chapter introduces three alternative methods which belong to this class but, in contrast to the Factorization Method, are based on approximation results of solutions of the Helmholtz equation or Laplace equation by special functions. These approximation results are formulated and proven in Section 7.1. Historically, the Factorization Method is a continuation of the Linear Sampling Method which stems from the Dual Space Method of Colton and Monk developed around 1985. Section 7.2 recalls both of these methods. Recently, an interesting and deeper relationship between the Factorization Method and the Linear Sampling Method has been discovered which explains the good results by the latter method. Then the Singular Sources Method by Potthast is presented and mathematically justified. The final section introduces the Ikehata's Probe Method. In the presentations of the latter methods, special emphasis is given to the relationship to the Factorization Method.

This chapter discusses the syntax of simplex reflexives. It argues that simplex reflexives should be analysed on a par with possessive pronouns occurring in contexts of inalienable possession. Concretely, simplex reflexives are merged as the Possessum in a possessive constituent that also hosts its antecedent, the Possessor. Following Den Dikken (2006), the Possessum is merged in a position that is hierarchically higher than the Possessor. In this configuration, the reflexive Possessum is a probe c-commanding its goal, the Possessor-antecedent. The reflexive Possessum values its φ-features in an Agree relation with the Possessor, thus deriving Binding. Finally, it is shown that the constituent containing the Possessor and the Possessum is the internal argument of an unaccusative verb.

This chapter tackles the syntax of self-reflexives. Such reflexives are derived from pronouns by adjoining a self-part to them, which provides them with the syntax of floating quantifiers. This claim is developed in two steps: first, it is shown that self-reflexives share a number of properties with intensifiers (e.g., The headmaster has seen me himself). Second, it is argued that the syntax of such intensifiers closely matches that of floating quantifiers. Finally, the syntax of self-reflexives is shown to be reducible to the syntax of floating quantifiers. Floating quantifiers must c-command its antecedent. So do self-reflexives: they overtly or covertly raise to an adjoined position from which they c-command their antecedents. As probes, they value their φ-features via an Agree relation with the antecedent they c-command. An account is developed for the logophoric uses of self-reflexives.

Chapter 9 “Single-species detection” deals with the practical aspects of detecting a single and predefined taxon with eDNA, with a particular focus on the use of quantitative PCR (qPCR) for this purpose. After presenting how single-species detection has been implemented in a few seminal studies, it details the principles underlying qPCR. More specifically, it describes the typical qPCR amplification curve and the different systems (SYBR green and TaqMan probe assays) available to record amplicon accumulation in real time via fluorescence measurements. Chapter 9 also explains how the initial number of target sequences can be estimated with the Ct method, and addresses the design and test of reliable qPCR barcodes and probes targeting a single species. Finally, several important experimental considerations are highlighted, including the particular concerns of contamination and inhibition in qPCR.

Chapter 18 “Analysis of bulk samples” deals with the particular case of biodiversity surveys based on bulk samples. A bulk sample is an environmental sample containing mainly organisms from the taxonomic group under study, such as insect samples obtained from a Malaise trap, or eukaryote-enriched samples obtained from filtered or size-fractionated water samples. One important characteristic of bulk samples is that they usually provide good-quality DNA in high amounts. Chapter 18 presents several seminal studies based on bulk samples that aimed at monitoring arthropod, nematode, or marine metazoan diversity. The advantages and limitations of the classical barcoding COI marker versus metabarcoding markers for bulk sample analysis are also discussed. Finally, Chapter 18 reviews two alternative strategies to limit the taxonomic biases associated with the use of the COI marker (i.e., mitochondrial enrichment via differential centrifugation or capture, followed by extraction and shotgun sequencing).

This chapter argues that the argument-taking properties of roots can be derived from Chomsky’s (2000, 2001) Probe–Goal system. If merged with n, roots become nouns (√DESTROY → destruction), which do not require an internal argument (e.g., destruction (of the city)); if merged with v, roots become verbs (√DESTROY → destroy, (√SING → sing), which do require an internal argument (incorporated or not, destroy *(the city) vs. sing) for valuation purposes. We claim that such a distinction follows from the featural endowment of light functional heads, v and n, which contain a bundle of agreement features. Crucially, given that only v’s bundle enters the syntactic component in an unvalued fashion, it acts as a Probe seeking a matching Goal in its search space (an internal argument). Ultimately, this proposal tries to derive an allegedly semantic property of lexical items (i.e., argument taking) from the specifics of well-known formal dependencies, thus reinforcing the thesis that semantic processes are (ancillary) consequences of syntactic dependencies.

This chapter describes a machine that efficiently generates syntactic structure using fundamental Set and Pair Merge operations beginning with a pre-ordered Lexical Array (LA) of heads. The machine also implements Probe-Goal agreement and Phase theory to correctly converge on a variety of syntactic constructions discussed in the linguistics literature. Displacement is driven by Edge features. The machine state consists of a current syntactic object (SO) and the input (LA). It also incorporates a goal stack that effectively short-circuits the need to search inside the current SO. The machine is capable of locally deciding on the appropriate Merge and Probe operations at each Merge step by considering the Label and features of the current SO and the LA head, without the need for (temporary) over-generation or lookahead. Non-determinism, i.e. multiple convergent SOs, is also possible in cases where theory demands it