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This chapter presents the main theoretical framework of the book. After defining the concept of political fragmentation, the chapter identifies three major types of political fragmentation (i.e., functional, territorial, and intergovernmental) and specifies the effects of each type on the policy process.

The conclusion synthesizes the results of the book and describes the implications of the study for urban preservation, social justice, and broader urban changes. It examines the explanatory power of the theory of political fragmentation by discussing its potential application to the preservation practice in a number of major world cities.

Many of the problems Europe faces in coming to terms with a rising China stem from domestic politics. The European political landscape has changed as the focus of political contestation has moved away from ideology to issue and identity politics that is characteristic of post-material societies. In consequence of these shifts, political party systems have gradually become more fragmented. Fragile governing coalitions in many EU member states diminish the incentives European of decision-makers to exercise leadership and invest personal political capital to upgrade relations with China. As Europe finds itself in a process of relative economic and political decline vis-�is China, public opinion about China has turned increasingly negative.

This chapter examines how local officials’ purposes of pursuing urban growth and enhancing the global image of Beijing are filtered through the structure of functional fragmentation, thus generated a pattern of symbolic preservation in Beijing.

This chapter shows that, whereas urban preservation in Paris had long been a privilege of the state, the municipal government has begun to claim more autonomy over its urban territory and attempted to incorporate urban preservation into a larger frame of urban development. Hence, urban preservation in Paris is gradually transformed from the monopoly of the state to a joint venture between the city and the state.

This chapter focuses on Indira Gandhi’s turn to populism and authoritarianism from the late 1960s and 1970s. It is argued that populism and authoritarianism had a long-term impact on Indian politics and political economy by creating the conditions that facilitated the emergence of long-term processes of political fragmentation – due to the decline of the Congress Party and the rise of various social forces and political formations – and economic reform. The chapter first shows how Cold War interventionism played a key role in Indira Gandhi’s shift toward agrarian populist policies and authoritarianism. It then details the ways in which the outcomes of populism and authoritarianism laid the path for the turn to pro-business and pro-market policies as well as political fragmentation and democratic deepening. Hence, the chapter makes the case for seeing the 1970s as a critical juncture in Indian history which laid the foundations for the major economic and political changes India has recently experienced. Within this period, the Cold War context was a crucial factor in the decisions and choices made by the Indian leadership.

This chapter demonstrates that, while urban preservation in Chicago has become a tool to increase property value and promote community revitalization, the territorial fragmentation along ward boundaries has divided local communities and generated a model of mosaic preservation in the city.